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Operating System Concepts 1.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Chapter 3:
Process Management

Operating System Concepts Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Concept
 Process – a program in execution; process execution
must progress in sequential fashion
 Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable
file), process is active
 Program becomes process when executable file
loaded into memory
 Execution of program started via:
 GUI mouse clicks,
 command line entry of its name,
 etc
 One program can be several processes
 Consider multiple users executing the same program
Operating System Concepts 1.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Structure
 A process is more than the program code, which is
sometimes known as the text section.
 It also includes the current activity:
 The value of the program counter
 The contents of the processor's registers.
 It also includes the process stack, which contains
temporary data (such as function parameters, return
addresses, and local variables)
 It also includes the data section, which contains global
variables.
 It may also include a heap, which is memory that is
dynamically allocated during process run time.

Operating System Concepts 1.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process State

 As a process executes, it changes state

 new: The process is being created
 running: Instructions are being executed
 waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
 ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
 terminated: The process has finished execution
 Diagram of Process State

Operating System Concepts 1.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Control Block (PCB)

Information associated with each process

(also called task control block)
 Process state – running, waiting, etc
 Program counter – location of instruction to
next execute
 CPU registers – contents of all process-centric
registers
 CPU scheduling information- priorities,
scheduling queue pointers
 Memory-management information – memory
allocated to the process
 Accounting information – CPU used, clock time
elapsed since start, time limits
 I/O status information – I/O devices allocated
to process, list of open files

Operating System Concepts 1.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Threads

 So far, process has a single thread of

execution
 Consider having multiple program counters
per process
 Multiple locations can execute at once
Multiple threads of control -> threads
 Need storage for thread details, multiple
program counters in PCB

Operating System Concepts 1.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Overview
 Most modern applications are multithreaded
 Threads run within application
 Multiple tasks with the application can be implemented
by separate threads
 Update display
 Fetch data
 Spell checking
 Answer a network request
 Process creation is heavy-weight while thread creation
is light-weight
 Can simplify code, increase efficiency
 Kernels are generally multithreaded
Operating System Concepts 1.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Multithreading Models

 One to One model

 Many to One model
 Many to Many model

Operating System Concepts 1.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 One-to-One Model
 Each user-level thread maps to a single kernel thread
 Creating a user-level thread creates a kernel thread
 More concurrency than many-to-one
 Number of threads per process sometimes restricted due to overhead
 Examples
 Windows
 Linux

Operating System Concepts 1.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Many-to-One Model
 Many user-level threads mapped to single kernel thread
 One thread blocking causes all to block
 Multiple threads may not run in parallel on multicore system
because only one may be in kernel at a time
 Few systems currently use this model
 Examples:
 Solaris Green Threads
 GNU Portable Threads

Operating System Concepts 1.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Many-to-Many Model
 Allows many user level threads to be mapped to many kernel
threads
 Allows the operating system to create a sufficient number of kernel
threads
 Solaris prior to version 9
 Windows with the ThreadFiber package

Operating System Concepts 1.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Threading Issues

 Semantics of fork() and exec() system

calls
 Signal handling
 Synchronous and asynchronous
 Thread cancellation of target thread
 Asynchronous or deferred
 Thread-local storage
 Scheduler Activations

Operating System Concepts 1.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Semantics of fork() and exec()

 Does fork()duplicate only the

calling thread or all threads?
 Some UNIX systems have two
versions of fork
 exec() usually works as normal –
replace the running process including
all threads

Operating System Concepts 1.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Scheduling
 Maximize CPU use
 Quickly switch processes onto CPU for time sharing
 Process “gives” up then CPU under two conditions:
 I/O request
 After N units of time have elapsed (need a timer)
 Once a process gives up the CPU it is added to the
“ready queue”
 Process scheduler selects among available
processes in the ready queue for next execution on
CPU

Operating System Concepts 1.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Scheduling Queues

 OS Maintains scheduling queues of

processes
 Job queue – set of all processes in the
system
 Ready queue – set of all processes residing
in main memory, ready and waiting to
execute
 Device queues – set of processes waiting for
an I/O device
 Processes migrate among the various
queues
Operating System Concepts 1.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Representation of Process Scheduling

 Queuing diagram represents queues, resources, flows

Operating System Concepts 1.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Schedulers
 Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process
should be executed next and allocates a CPU
 Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
 Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds)  (must
be fast)
 Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes
should be brought into the ready queue
 Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes) 
(may be slow)
 The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
 Processes can be described as either:
 I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than
computations, many short CPU bursts
 CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few
very long CPU bursts
 Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix

Operating System Concepts 1.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Context Switch

 When CPU switches to another process, the

system must save the state of the old
process and load the saved state for the new
process via a context switch
 Context of a process represented in the PCB
 Context-switch time is pure overhead; the
system does no useful work while switching
 The more complex the OS and the PCB 
the longer the context switch
 Time dependent on hardware support
 Some hardware provides multiple sets of
registers per CPU  multiple contexts
loaded at once
Operating System Concepts 1.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operations on Processes

 System must provide

mechanisms for:
 process creation,
 process termination,
 and so on as detailed next

Operating System Concepts 1.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Creation
 A process may create other processes.
 Parent process create children processes, which, in turn
create other processes, forming a tree of processes
 Generally, a process is identified and managed via a
process identifier (pid)
 A Tree of Processes in UNIX

Operating System Concepts 1.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Creation (Cont.)

 Resource sharing among parents and children

options
 Parent and children share all resources
 Children share subset of parent’s resources
 Parent and child share no resources
 Execution options
 Parent and children execute concurrently
 Parent waits until children terminate

Operating System Concepts 1.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Creation (Cont.)
 Address space
 A child is a duplicate of the parent address space.
 A child loads a program into the address space.
 UNIX examples
 fork() system call creates new process
 exec() system call used after a fork()replaces
the process’ memory space with a new program

Operating System Concepts 1.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Termination
 A process terminates when it finishes executing its final statement
and it asks the operating system to delete it by using the exit()
system call.
 At that point, the process may return a status value (typically an
integer) to its parent process (via the wait() system call.
 All the resources of the process are deallocated by the operating
system.
 A parent may terminate the execution of children processes using
the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing so:
 Child has exceeded allocated resources
 Task assigned to child is no longer required
 The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not allow a
child to continue if its parent terminates

Operating System Concepts 1.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013

 Process Termination (Cont.)

 Some operating systems do not allow a child process to exists if its

parent has terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children
must also be terminated.
 cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are
terminated.
 The termination is initiated by the operating system.
 The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by
using the wait()system call. The call returns status information
and the pid of the terminated process
pid = wait(&status);
 If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is zombie
 If parent terminated without invoking wait, process is orphan

Operating System Concepts 1.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013