EMP 012

2023 - 2024
 Table of Contents

Page

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................. 1

PART (1): INTEGRAL CALCULUS ............................................................ 3

Chapter 1: Indefinite Integrals ...................................................................... 3

Chapter 2: Definite Integrals ....................................................................... 47

Chapter 3: Integration by Parts ................................................................... 61

Chapter 4: Integration by Successive Reduction ............................................. 75

Chapter 5: Integration of Trigonometric Functions ......................................... 87

Chapter 6: Integration by Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Substitutions.............. 96

Chapter 7: Integration by Partial Fractions ..................................................106

Chapter 8: Applications of Definite Integrals ................................................124

Chapter 9: Improper Integrals ...................................................................147

PART (2): SERIES ................................................................................. 159

Chapter 10: Introduction to Series and Sigma Notation ..................................159

Chapter 11: Infinite Series Tests .................................................................171

Chapter 12: Maclaurin and Taylor Series .....................................................197

Chapter 13: Binomial Series .......................................................................211

Chapter 14: Fourier Series .........................................................................224

REFERENCES ...................................................................................... 247

|Pag e1
 2023 - 2024

|Pag e2
 Part (1): Integral Calculus

Chapter 1: Indefinite Integrals

In this chapter, we will study the integration process as an inverse

operation of the differentiation. The chapter contains the following topics:

• Introduction and basics of integration.

• Table of antiderivatives (Basic integration rules).
• 1st generalization rule (Replacing 𝑥 by 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏).
• 2nd generalization rule (Replacing 𝑥 by 𝑓(𝑥 )).
• Integration by algebraic substitution.

By the end of the chapter, the student should be able to:

• know the concept of integration and why it is important

• know the relation between antiderivative and the area under the
curve
• solve basic integrals based on the table and the first and second
generalization rules
• decide to make a substitution for some integrals to simplify them
and apply the substitution correctly.

Introduction and Basics of Integration:

The integration is classified as indefinite and definite. The indefinite
integral is an inverse operation of differentiation. If 𝐹 (𝑥 ) is a
differentiable function such that:
𝑑
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
then the indefinite integral of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) with respect to 𝑥 is given by:

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶

|Pag e3
the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is called the integrand. The differential 𝑑𝑥 refers that
the integration is with respect to 𝑥. The function 𝐹 (𝑥 ) is an
antiderivative for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ). 𝐶 is an arbitrary constant.
𝑥4 𝑑 𝑥4 4𝑥 3
e.g. ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = 4
+ 𝐶 because
𝑑𝑥
[
4
+ 𝐶] =
4
+ 0 = 𝑥 3 for any
value for the constant 𝐶.

Geometric Meaning of Integration

The definite integral of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 is
defined by:
𝑏

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹 (𝑥 )]𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎)

𝑎

where 𝐹 (𝑥 ) is an antiderivative for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ).

For the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ), shown in the figure, the definite integral gives the
area under the curve of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and above the 𝑥-axis from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏.
𝑏

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Evaluation of Indefinite Integrals

A. Table of antiderivatives.
B. Integration rules.
C. Integration techniques.

|Pag e4
 Table of Integration
Power Function
𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
1
e. g. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2√𝑥 + 𝐶
√𝑥
1
∫ 𝑥 −1𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥

Exponential Function
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑥
𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
ln 𝑎

Trigonometric Functions Hyperbolic Functions

∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ sinh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ cosh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sinh 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ sech2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ cosec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ cosech2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − coth 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − sech 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cosec 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ cosech 𝑥 coth 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cosech 𝑥 + 𝐶

|Pag e5
 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ = sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ = sinh−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1 − 𝑥2 √1 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2
= tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ 2
= tanh−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
1+𝑥 1−𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ = sec −1 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ = cosh−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
2
𝑥√𝑥 − 1 2
√𝑥 − 1

Integration rules
Linearity property of integration:

∫(𝑎𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 ))𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑏 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

1
−
5(𝑥 2)
4 5 5𝑥 3
e.g. ∫ (5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 =
3
− 4 ln|𝑥| + 1 +𝐶
𝑥
( )
2 −
2

Examples
2𝑥 3 +4
Ex 1: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

Solution:
2𝑥 3 + 4 5 4
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (2𝑥 2 + ) 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 √𝑥
7
𝑥2
=2 + 4(2 √𝑥) + 𝐶
7
( )
2
4 3
= 𝑥 √𝑥 + 8√𝑥 + 𝐶
7

|Pag e6
Ex 2: ∫(𝑥 2 − 4)2 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫(𝑥 2 − 4)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2 + 16)𝑑𝑥

𝑥 5 8𝑥 3
= − + 16𝑥 + 𝐶
5 3

Ex 3: ∫ 3𝑥 √𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑥
∫ 3𝑥 √𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3𝑥 (√𝑒) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥
= ∫(3√𝑒) 𝑑𝑥

𝑥
(3√𝑒)
= +𝐶
ln(3√𝑒)

3𝑥 √𝑒 𝑥
= +𝐶
1
ln 3 +
2

𝑥 𝑥
Ex 4: ∫ sin 2 cos 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑥 𝑥 1
∫ sin cos 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2 2
1
= − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
2

|Pag e7
Ex 5: ∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫ tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

= tan 𝑥 – 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑥
Ex 6: ∫ sin2 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑥 1
∫ sin2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
2 2
1
= (𝑥 − sin 𝑥 ) + 𝐶
2

𝑥2
Ex 7: ∫ 1+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2 − 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1
= ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
= 𝑥 − tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶

|Pag e8
 𝑥4
Ex 8: ∫ 𝑥2 +1 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑃𝑚 (𝑥)
Recall: For the rational function ,
𝑄𝑛 (𝑥)

𝑃𝑚 (𝑥 ) is a polynomial of degree 𝑚

𝑄𝑛 (𝑥 ) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛

If 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛, then we can use the long division.

𝑥2 − 1 Result

𝑥2 + 1 𝑥4
𝑥4 + 𝑥2

−𝑥 2
−𝑥 2 − 1
1 Remainder
𝑥4 1
∴∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 − 1 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1 𝑥 +1

𝑥3
= − 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

Ex 9: ∫ sin 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
sin 𝑥
∫ sin 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 2 𝑥

= ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

|Pag e9
 1
Ex 10: ∫ 1+sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
1 1 (1 − sin 𝑥 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ × 𝑑𝑥
1 + sin 𝑥 1 + sin 𝑥 (1 − sin 𝑥 )
1 − sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 − sin2 𝑥
1 − sin 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos 2 𝑥

= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

= tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

(cos 𝑥+1)2
Ex 11: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin2 𝑥

Solution:
(cos 𝑥 + 1)2 (cos 2 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 + 1)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin2 𝑥 sin2 𝑥

= ∫(cot 2 𝑥 + 2 cot 𝑥 cosec 𝑥 + cosec 2 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

= ∫((cosec 2𝑥 − 1) + 2 cot 𝑥 cosec 𝑥 + cosec 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= ∫(2cosec 2 𝑥 + 2 cot 𝑥 cosec 𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥

= −2 cot 𝑥 − 2 cosec 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

| P a g e 10
1st Generalization Rule
If ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶, then:
1
∫ 𝑓 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎
Proof:

∵ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶

𝑑
∴ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹′(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
∴ 𝐹 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝐹′ (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥
1
∴ ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎

e.g.

1 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛+1
)𝑛
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 = × +𝐶 , 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑎 𝑛+1
1 1 (3 − 2𝑥 )−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = × +𝐶
(3 − 2𝑥 )2 −2 −1
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|3 − 2𝑥| + 𝐶
3 − 2𝑥 −2
1
∫ 𝑒 3𝑥+2𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 3𝑥+2 + 𝐶
3
1 2−3𝑥
1 52−3𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5 𝑑𝑥 = × +𝐶
53𝑥−2 −3 ln 5
1
∫ sin(3𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos(3𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
3
𝑑𝑥 1 −1
∫ = sin (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
√1 − (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 𝑎

| P a g e 11
 𝑑𝑥 1
∫ = tan−1(3 − 5𝑥 ) + 𝐶
1 + (3 − 5𝑥 )2 −5
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ = ∫ = ∫
4 + 𝑥2 4 𝑥2 4 𝑥 2
1+ 1+( )
4 2
1 1 𝑥
= × × tan−1 + 𝐶
4 (1) 2
2
1 𝑥
= tan−1 + 𝐶
2 2
Important Rules
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ = sin−1 + 𝐶 ∫ = tan−1
+𝐶
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = sinh−1 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
√𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑎 ∫ = tanh −1
+𝐶
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = cosh−1 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎 ∫ = sec −1 + 𝐶
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎

Examples
𝑑𝑥
Ex 12: ∫ √5−𝑥2

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
∫ = sin−1 +𝐶
√5 − 𝑥 2 √5

𝑑𝑥
Ex 13: ∫ 9−𝑥2

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 −1
𝑥
∫ = tanh +𝐶
9 − 𝑥2 3 3

| P a g e 12
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 14: ∫ √5−2𝑥2

Solution:

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 5 5
∫ = ∫ (𝑎2 = → 𝑎=√ )
√5 − 2𝑥 2 √2 2 2
√5 − 𝑥 2
2
1 𝑥
= sin−1 +𝐶
√2
√5
2

1 √2 𝑥
= sin−1 +𝐶
√2 √5

Or:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
√5 − 2𝑥 2 2
√(√5) − (√2 𝑥)2

1 √2 𝑥
= sin−1 +𝐶
√2 √5

𝑑𝑥
Ex 15: ∫ 5+3𝑥2

Solution:

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 5 5
∫ = ∫ (𝑎2 = → 𝑎=√ )
5 + 3𝑥 2 3 5 + 𝑥2 3 3
3

1 3 𝑥
= × √ tan−1 +𝐶
3 5 √5/3

1 √3𝑥
= tan−1 +𝐶
√15 √5

| P a g e 13
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 16: ∫√
4+(2−𝑥)2

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 2−𝑥
∫ = × sinh−1 +𝐶
√4 + (2 − 𝑥 )2 −1 2

2−𝑥
= − sinh−1 ( )+𝐶
2
𝑑𝑥
Ex 17: ∫ 4+(3𝑥−2)2

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 1 −1
3𝑥 − 2
∫ = × tan +𝐶
4 + (3𝑥 − 2)2 2 3 2
1 3𝑥 − 2
= tan−1 ( )+𝐶
6 2

𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
Integrations of the forms: ∫ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∫
𝑨𝒙𝟐 +𝑩𝒙+𝑪 √ 𝑨𝒙𝟐+𝑩𝒙+𝑪

In these cases, completing square is used to convert the quadratic form

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 to the form 𝐴(𝑥 − 𝐸 )2 + 𝐹.

Completing square:

(1) Make sure that the coefficient of 𝑥 2 equals to one.

(2) Apply the rule:
2
𝑎 2 𝑎 2
𝑥 ± 𝑎𝑥 = (𝑥 ± ) − )
(
2 2
e.g.
1 2 1
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = (𝑥 − ) −
2 4

2
1 2 1 1 2 15
𝑥 − 𝑥 + 4 = (𝑥 − ) − + 4 = (𝑥 − ) +
2 4 2 4

| P a g e 14
Examples
𝑑𝑥
Ex 18: ∫ √𝑥2 −4𝑥+5

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫ (Completing square)
√𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 √(𝑥 − 2)2 − 4 + 5

𝑑𝑥
=∫
√(𝑥 − 2)2 + 1

= sinh−1(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐶

𝑑𝑥
Ex 19: ∫ √2𝑥2 −4𝑥+6

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
∫ = ∫
√2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6 √2 √𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3
1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫ (Completing square)
√2 √(𝑥 − 1)2 − 1 + 3

1 𝑑𝑥
= ∫
√2 √(𝑥 − 1)2 + 2

1 𝑥−1
= sinh−1 +𝐶
√2 √2

| P a g e 15
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 20: ∫ √5−2𝑥−𝑥2

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
√5 − 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 √−(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 5)

𝑑𝑥
=∫ (Completing square)
√−((𝑥 + 1)2 − 1 − 5)

𝑑𝑥
=∫
√−((𝑥 + 1)2 − 6)

𝑑𝑥
=∫
√6 − (𝑥 + 1)2
𝑥+1
= sin−1 ( )+𝐶
√6

𝑑𝑥
Ex 21: ∫ 𝑥(𝑥+1)

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫ 2
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 +𝑥
𝑑𝑥
=∫ (Completing square)
1 2 1
(𝑥 + ) −
2 4
𝑑𝑥
= −∫
1 1 2
− (𝑥 + )
4 2
1
1 𝑥+
=− tanh−1 2+𝐶
1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
= −2 tanh−1(2𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶

| P a g e 16
Trigonometric Integrals
To find ∫ sin2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and ∫ cos 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥, the following trigonometric
relations are used:
1
sin2 𝑎𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑎𝑥 )
2
1
cos 2 𝑎𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑎𝑥 )
2
1 1 sin 8𝑥
e.g., ∫ sin2 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos 8𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 − )+𝐶
2 2 8

To find ∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥, the following trigonometric relation is used:

1
sin 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑎𝑥 = sin 2𝑎𝑥
2
1 1 − cos 4𝑥
e.g., ∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = × +𝐶
2 2 4

1
= − cos 4𝑥 + 𝐶
8
To find ∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ sin 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥, and ∫ cos 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
the following trigonometric relations are used:

Product to sum rules:

1
cos 𝒂 cos 𝒃 = (cos(𝒂 − 𝒃) + cos(𝒂 + 𝒃))
2
1
sin 𝒂 sin 𝒃 = (cos(𝒂 − 𝒃) − cos(𝒂 + 𝒃))
2
1
sin 𝒂 cos 𝒃 = (sin(𝒂 − 𝒃) + sin(𝒂 + 𝒃))
2
Recall that:

sin(−𝑥 ) = − sin 𝑥 (Odd function)

cos(−𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 (Even function)

| P a g e 17
Examples
Ex 22: ∫ cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
∫ cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cos(2𝑥 ) + cos(8𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 sin 2𝑥 sin 8𝑥
= ( + )+𝐶
2 2 8
1 1
= sin 2𝑥 + sin 8𝑥 + 𝐶
4 16

Ex 23: ∫(cos 3𝑥 sin 2𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
2
1
)2
∫(cos 3𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( (sin(−𝑥 ) + sin(5𝑥 ))) 𝑑𝑥
2
2
1
= ∫ ( (− sin(𝑥 ) + sin(5𝑥 ))) 𝑑𝑥
2

1
= ∫(sin2 5𝑥 − 2 sin 5𝑥 sin 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
4
1 1 1 1
= ∫ ( (1 − cos 10𝑥 ) − 2 × (cos 4𝑥 − cos 6𝑥 ) + (1 − cos 2𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2 2

1 1 1 1 1
= ∫ ( − cos 10𝑥 − cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥 + − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
= ∫ (1 − cos 10𝑥 − cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥 − cos 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
= (𝑥 − sin 10𝑥 − sin 4𝑥 + sin 6𝑥 − sin 2𝑥) + 𝐶
4 20 4 6 4
1 1 1 1 1
= 𝑥− sin 10𝑥 − sin 4𝑥 + sin 6𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
4 80 16 24 16

| P a g e 18
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 24: ∫ 1−cos 𝑥

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫ 𝑥
1 − cos 𝑥 2 sin2
2
1 𝑥
= ∫ cosec 2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 𝑥
=− × cot ( ) + 𝐶
2 (1) 2
2
𝑥
= − cot ( ) + 𝐶
2

2nd Generalization Rule

If ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶, then:

∫ 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑥 ))𝑑𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐺(𝑓 (𝑥 )) + 𝐶

e.g.

If ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶, then by replacing 𝑥 by 𝑓(𝑥):

∫ cos(𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sin(𝑓(𝑥)) + 𝐶

Recall that, for the differentiable function 𝑓 (𝑥 ), the differential of 𝑓 (𝑥 )

is given by:

𝑑𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

e.g. 𝑑𝑥 2 = 2𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑑 cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

| P a g e 19
 Then:

∫ cos(𝑓(𝑥 )) 𝑓′(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos(𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑓(𝑥 ) = sin(𝑓 (𝑥 )) + 𝐶

The differential
Integration

e.g.

𝑥5 1 𝑑
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 ( ) = 𝑑𝑥 5
4
5 5

sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 tan 𝑥
Differentiation

Integration Table
∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶

𝑥 → 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥 → 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 → 𝑑𝑓(𝑥)

1st Generalization 2nd Generalization

1
∫ 𝑔(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑔(𝑓 (𝑥 ))𝑑𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐺(𝑓 (𝑥 )) + 𝐶
𝑎

| P a g e 20
Using the 2nd generalization rule, then we can write:
𝑛+1
𝑛 ′ (𝑓 (𝑥 ))
∫(𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑓 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 =
( +𝐶
𝑛+1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2√𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶
√𝑓 (𝑥 )

𝑓 ′ (𝑥 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝐶
𝑓 (𝑥 )

∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝐶

𝑓(𝑥) ′(
𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)
∫𝑎 𝑓 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
ln 𝑎

∫ cos(𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = sin(𝑓 (𝑥 )) + 𝐶

∫ sec 2 (𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = tan(𝑓 (𝑥 )) + 𝐶

Examples
Ex 25: ∫(𝑥 3 + 4)7 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

3
𝑥3
)7 2
∫(𝑥 + 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 + 4 3 )7 𝑑( )
3

1
= ∫(𝑥 3 + 4)7 𝑑𝑥 3
3
1 (𝑥 3 + 4)8
= ( )+𝐶
3 8

1 3
= (𝑥 + 4)8 + 𝐶
24

| P a g e 21
 2
Ex 26: ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
2 1 2
∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2
1 𝑥2
= 𝑒 +𝐶
2

Ex 27: ∫ 𝑥 sin(3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
∫ 𝑥 sin(3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 6𝑥 sin(3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
6
𝑑
Note that: (3𝑥 2 + 1) = 6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
1
= ∫ sin(3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑(3𝑥 2 + 1)
6
1
= − cos(3𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝐶
6

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
Ex 28: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
5+sin2 𝑥

Solution:
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 × 𝑑𝑥
5 + sin2 𝑥 2 5 + sin2 𝑥
1 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑 sin2 𝑥
2 5 + sin 𝑥
1
= ln|5 + sin2 𝑥| + 𝐶
2

| P a g e 22
 cos 𝑥
Ex 29: ∫ 5+sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
cos 𝑥 𝑑 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
5 + sin2 𝑥 5 + sin2 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1 −1
𝑢
Using: ∫ = tan +𝐶
𝑎2 + 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎
1 sin 𝑥
= tan−1 ( )+𝐶
√5 √5

𝑥
Ex 30: ∫ 9+𝑥4 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
9 + 𝑥4 2 9 + (𝑥 2 )2
𝑑𝑢 1 −1
𝑢
Using: ∫ = tan +𝐶
𝑎2 + 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎
1 1 −1
𝑥2
= × tan ( ) + 𝐶
2 3 3

1 −1
𝑥2
= tan ( ) + 𝐶
6 3

Ex 31: ∫ √sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
1
∫ √sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √sin 2𝑥 𝑑 sin 2𝑥
2

𝑢3/2
Using: ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶
(3/2)

| P a g e 23
 1 (sin 2𝑥 )3/2
= × +𝐶
2 (3/2)
1
= √sin 2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶
3

sin−1 𝑥
Ex 32: ∫ √1−𝑥2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
sin−1 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin−1 𝑥 × 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2

= ∫ sin−1 𝑥 𝑑 sin−1 𝑥

𝑢2
Using: ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶
2
1
= (sin−1 𝑥 )2 + 𝐶
2

𝑑𝑥
Ex 33: ∫ √(1−𝑥2 )
sin−1 𝑥

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 1
∫ = ∫ × 𝑑𝑥
√(1 − 𝑥 2 ) sin−1 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 √sin−1 𝑥

1
= ∫ 𝑑 sin−1 𝑥
√sin−1 𝑥
1
Using: ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 2√𝑢 + 𝐶
√𝑢

= 2√sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶

| P a g e 24
 1
Ex 34: ∫ √𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 −2 𝑑𝑥
√𝑒 𝑥
Using the 1𝑠𝑡 generalization rule
𝑥
𝑒 −2
= +𝐶
1
(− )
2
𝑥
−2
= −2 𝑒 +𝐶

𝑑𝑥
Ex 35: ∫ 2
√4−(√𝑥+1)

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ = ∫
√4 − (√𝑥 + 1)
2 √4 − (𝑥 + 1)

𝑑𝑥
= ∫
√3 − 𝑥
1 2
Using: ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = √𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏 + 𝐶
√𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏 𝑎

2√3 − 𝑥
= +𝐶
−1

= −2√3 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

| P a g e 25
 (𝑥 5 −4𝑥 2 )
Ex 36: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4−𝑥 6

Solution:
(𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 2) 𝑥5 𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( −4× ) 𝑑𝑥
4 − 𝑥6 4 − 𝑥6 4 − 𝑥6

1 −6𝑥 5 4 3𝑥 2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
−6 4 − 𝑥 6 3 4 − (𝑥 3 )2
1 4 1
= ln|4 − 𝑥 6 | − ∫ 3 2 𝑑𝑥 3
−6 3 4 − (𝑥 )
1 1 𝑢
−1 ( )
Recall: ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = tanh +𝐶
𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎
1 6|
4 1 −1
𝑥3
= − ln|4 − 𝑥 − × tanh ( ) + 𝐶
6 3 2 2

1 6|
2 −1
𝑥3
= − ln|4 − 𝑥 − tanh ( ) + 𝐶
6 3 2

Additional rules to the integration table

∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶

∫ cosec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + 𝐶

Proof:
sin 𝑥
∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = − ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶 = 𝐥𝐧|𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙| + 𝑪
cos 𝑥

| P a g e 26
 cos 𝑥
∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐥𝐧|𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙| + 𝑪
sin 𝑥
sec 𝑥 (sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥)
∫ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥)

sec 2 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥

=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐥𝐧|𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙| + 𝑪
(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥)

cosec 𝑥 (cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 )

∫ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 )

cosec 2 𝑥 − cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥

=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐥𝐧|𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙| + 𝑪
(cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥)

Examples
𝑥3
𝑥 2 tanh−1( 2 )
Ex 37: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4−𝑥 6

Solution:

2 −1 𝑥3 𝑥3 −1
𝑥 tanh ( ) 1 tanh ( 2 ) 3
2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 − 𝑥6 3 4 − (𝑥 3 )2
1 3
Note that: 𝑥 2𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
3
Let: 𝑢 = 𝑥 3
1 𝑢 1
∴ Inegration = ∫ tanh−1 ( ) × ( ) 𝑑𝑢
3 2 4 − 𝑢2
1 1 𝑢 𝑢
= × ∫ tanh−1 ( ) 𝑑 tanh−1 ( )
3 2 2 2
1 1 −1
𝑢
Recall: 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑 tanh ( )
𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎

| P a g e 27
 2
−1 𝑢
1 (tanh (2 ))
= × +𝐶
6 2
𝑤2
Using: ∫ 𝑤 𝑑𝑤 = +𝐶
2
1 𝑢 2
= (tanh−1 ( )) + 𝐶
12 2
2
1 −1
𝑥3
= (tanh ( )) + 𝐶
12 2
sin 4𝑥
Ex 38: ∫ 4+sin4 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
sin 4𝑥 2 sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
4 + sin4 2𝑥 4 + (sin2 2𝑥 )2
sin 2𝑥
=∫ 𝑑 sin 2𝑥
4 + (sin2 2𝑥 )2

Note that: 2 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 2𝑥

Let: 𝑦 = sin 2𝑥
𝑦
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
4 + (𝑦 2 )2
1 1
= ∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑦 2
2 4 + (𝑦 )

Let: 𝑢 = 𝑦 2
1 1
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
2 4 + 𝑢2
1 1 𝑢
= × tan−1 + 𝐶
2 2 2
1 −1
sin2 2𝑥
= tan ( )+𝐶
4 2

| P a g e 28
 sec4 𝑥
Ex 39: ∫ 2+tan2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
sec 4 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 + tan2 𝑥 2 + tan2 𝑥
sec 2 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑 tan 𝑥
2 + tan2 𝑥
1 + tan2 𝑥
=∫ 𝑑 tan 𝑥
2 + tan2 𝑥
Let: 𝑦 = tan 𝑥

1 + 𝑦2
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
2 + 𝑦2

1 + (𝑦 2 + 2) − 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑦
2 + 𝑦2

+2 − 2 or using long division

(2 + 𝑦 2 ) − 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑦
(2 + 𝑦 2 )
1
= ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦
2 + 𝑦2
1 𝑦
=𝑦− tan−1 +𝐶
√2 √2
1 tan 𝑥
= tan 𝑥 − tan−1 ( )+𝐶
√2 √2

| P a g e 29
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 40: ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 1
∫ =∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑥
1
=∫ 𝑑 ln 𝑥
ln 𝑥
Let: 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
1
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢
= ln|𝑢| + 𝐶

= ln|ln 𝑥| + 𝐶

𝑑𝑥
Ex 41: ∫ 𝑥 ln2 𝑥

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 1 1
∫ = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 ln2 𝑥 ln2 𝑥 𝑥
1
=∫ 𝑑 ln 𝑥
ln2 𝑥
Let: 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
1
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢2
𝑢−1
= +𝐶
−1
1
=− +𝐶
ln 𝑥

| P a g e 30
 sin(2√𝑥+3)
Ex 42: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

Solution:
sin(2√𝑥 + 3) 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin(2√𝑥 + 3) × 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 √𝑥

= 2 ∫ sin(2√𝑥 + 3) 𝑑 √𝑥

1
Note that: 𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑑√𝑥
√𝑥
Let: 𝑢 = √𝑥
∴ Inegration = 2 ∫ sin(2𝑢 + 3) 𝑑𝑢

− cos(2𝑢 + 3)
=2× +𝐶
2
= − cos(2√𝑥 + 3) + 𝐶

ln √𝑥+1
Ex 43: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1

Solution:
1
ln √𝑥 + 1 ln(𝑥 + 1)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
1 1
= ∫ ln(𝑥 + 1) × 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥+1
1
= ∫ ln(𝑥 + 1) 𝑑 ln(𝑥 + 1)
2
𝑢2
Note that: ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶
2
1
= (ln(𝑥 + 1))2 + 𝐶
4

| P a g e 31
 sin 𝑥 𝑒 sec 𝑥
Ex 44: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
cos2 𝑥

Solution:
sin 𝑥 𝑒 sec 𝑥
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑒 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥

= ∫ 𝑒 sec 𝑥 𝑑 sec 𝑥

Note that: ∫ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝐶

= 𝑒 sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑒𝑥
Ex 45: ∫ √𝑒 2𝑥+𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑒𝑥 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑒 𝑥
√𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 √(𝑒 𝑥 )2 + 𝑒 𝑥

Let: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
1
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
√𝑦 2 + 𝑦

by completing square
𝑑𝑦
=∫
2
√(𝑦 + 1) − 1
2 4
𝑑𝑢 𝑢
Note that: ∫ = cosh−1 +𝐶
√𝑢2 − 𝑎2 𝑎
1
(𝑦 + )
= cosh−1 2 +𝐶
1
( )
2
= cosh−1(2𝑒 𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶

| P a g e 32
 𝑒 2𝑥 −2𝑒 𝑥
Ex 46: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 +1

Solution:
𝑒 2𝑥 − 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 − 2)
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 +1 𝑒𝑥 + 1
𝑒𝑥 − 2
=∫ 𝑥 𝑑 𝑒𝑥
𝑒 +1
Let: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑦−2
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦+1
(𝑦 + 1) − 1 − 2
=∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦+1
3
= ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦+1

= 𝑦 − 3 ln|𝑦 + 1| + 𝐶

= 𝑒 𝑥 − 3 ln|𝑒 𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶

1
Ex 47: ∫ 1−𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
1 𝒆𝒙
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝒙 𝑑𝑥
1 − 𝑒𝑥 𝒆 (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑒 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥 (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )

Let: 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ Inegration = ∫
𝑦(1 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
= −∫
𝑦2 − 𝑦

| P a g e 33
 𝑑𝑦
= −∫
1 2 1
(𝑦 − ) −
2 4
𝑑𝑦
= ∫
1 1 2
− (𝑦 − )
4 2
1 1 −1
𝑢
Recall: ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = tanh ( )+𝐶
𝑎2 − 𝑢2 𝑎 𝑎
1
1 (𝑦 − )
= tanh−1 2 +𝐶
1 1
( ) ( )
2 2
= 2 tanh−1(2 𝑒 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

Another solution:
1 𝒆−𝒙
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −𝒙 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑒𝑥 𝒆 (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
−𝑒 −𝑥
= − ∫ −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 +1
𝑓′(𝑥 )
Recall: ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑓 (𝑥 )| + 𝐶
𝑓 (𝑥 )
= − ln|𝑒 −𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶
𝑑𝑥
Ex 48: ∫ √1+𝑒 𝑥

Solution:
𝒙
−
𝑑𝑥 𝒆 𝟐
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 + 𝑒 𝑥 √(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )𝒆−𝒙
𝑥
𝑒 −2
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑒 −𝑥 + 1
1 𝑥
= −2 ∫ 𝑑𝑒 −2
√1 + 𝑒 −𝑥

| P a g e 34
 𝑥
Let: 𝑦 = 𝑒 −2
1
∴ Inegration = −2 ∫ 𝑑𝑦
√1 + 𝑦 2

= −2 sinh−1 𝑦 + 𝐶
𝑥
= −2 sinh−1 𝑒 −2 + 𝐶

ln tan 𝑥
Ex 49: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 2𝑥

Solution:
ln tan 𝑥 ln tan 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 2𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑑 1
Note that: ln tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 tan 𝑥
cos 𝑥 1
= ×
sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥
1
=
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
1
∴ 𝑑 ln tan 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
1
∴ Inegration = ∫ ln tan 𝑥 𝑑 ln tan 𝑥
2
1
= (ln tan 𝑥 )2 + 𝐶
4

1+ln 𝑥
Ex 50: ∫ 3+𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑑 1
Note that: (3 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + ln 𝑥 = 1 + ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1 + ln 𝑥
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|3 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥| + 𝐶
3 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥

| P a g e 35
 𝑥 cos 𝑥+sin 𝑥
Ex 51: ∫ √4+𝑥2 sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√4 + 𝑥 2 sin2 𝑥 √4 + (𝑥 sin 𝑥 )2

𝑑
Note that: (𝑥 sin 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴ 𝑑(𝑥 sin 𝑥 ) = (𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
1
∴ Inegration = ∫ 𝑑(𝑥 sin 𝑥 )
√4 + (𝑥 sin 𝑥 )2

𝑑𝑢 𝑢
Note that: ∫ = sinh−1 +𝐶
√𝑎2 + 𝑢2 𝑎
𝑥 sin 𝑥
= sinh−1 ( )+𝐶
2

3𝑥−1
Ex 52: ∫ 32𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
3𝑥−1 1 3𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3 +2 3 (3 ) + 2
1 𝑑 (3 𝑥 )
= ∫
3 ln 3 (3𝑥 )2 + 2
1 1 −1
3𝑥
= × tan ( ) + 𝐶
3 ln 3 √2 √2
1 −1
3𝑥
= tan ( )+𝐶
3√2 ln 3 √2

| P a g e 36
 32𝑥−1
Ex 53: ∫ 32𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
32𝑥−1 1 32𝑥
∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3 +2 3 3 +2
1 1 𝑑 32𝑥
= × ∫
3 ln 3 2 32𝑥 + 2
1
= ln|32𝑥 + 2| + 𝐶
6 ln 3

𝑬𝒙+𝑭 𝑬𝒙+𝑭
Integrations of the form: ∫ 𝒅𝒙 𝐚𝐧𝐝 ∫ 𝒅𝒙
𝑨𝒙𝟐 +𝑩𝒙+𝑪 √ 𝑨𝒙𝟐 +𝑩𝒙+𝑪

𝑓′(𝑥)
In these cases, the integration will be written in the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥 or
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓′(𝑥)
∫ √𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 and completing square may be applied to the quadratic form
𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 .

Examples
(𝑥+1)
Ex 54: ∫ √𝑥 2 +3𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑 2
Note that: (𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 + 3
𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1) 1 𝟐(𝑥 + 1)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 𝟐 √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
1 2𝑥 + 2 + 1 − 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
1 2𝑥 + 3 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 2 √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1
| P a g e 37
 1 2𝑥 + 3 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 2 2
√(𝑥 + 3) − 13
2 4

𝑓′(𝑥) Completing square

In the form ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑓(𝑥)

3
1 1 𝑥+
= × 2√𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 − cosh−1 2 +𝐶
2 2
√13
( 4 )
1 2𝑥 + 3
= √𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 − cosh−1 ( )+𝐶
2 √13

𝑥
Ex 55: ∫ √𝑥2 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑
Note that: (𝑥2 − 𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 1 𝟐𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 𝑥 𝟐 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥
1 2𝑥 − 1 + 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥
1 2𝑥 − 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥
1 2𝑥 − 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 2
√(𝑥 − 1) − 1
2 4
1
1 1 𝑥−
= (2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑥) + cosh−1 ( 2) + 𝐶
2 2 1
( )
2
1
= √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + cosh−1(2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶
2
| P a g e 38
 𝑥−1
Ex 56: ∫ 𝑥2 −3𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑑 2
Note that: (𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥 − 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑥−1 1 𝟐(𝑥 − 1)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 𝟐 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1
1 2𝑥 − 2 − 3 + 3
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1
1 2𝑥 − 3 1 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1
1 2𝑥 − 3 1 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 2 3 2 5
(𝑥 − ) −
2 4
1 2𝑥 − 3 1 1
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 1 2 5 3 2
− (𝑥 − )
4 2

3
1 1 1 𝑥−
= ln|𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1| − tanh−1 2
2 2
√5 √5
( 4 ( 4 ))
+𝐶
1 1 2𝑥 − 3
= ln|𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1| − tanh−1 ( )+𝐶
2 √5 √5

| P a g e 39
Integration by Algebraic Substitution
In this part, we will use an algebraic substitution to eliminate the roots
from the integrand.

Examples
√𝑥+1
Ex 57: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2−𝑥

Solution:
Let: 𝑦 = √𝑥 + 1 ⟹ 𝑦2 = 𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑦2 − 1

∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Substituting in the integral:

√𝑥 + 1 𝑦
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2−𝑥 2 − (𝑦 2 − 1)

𝑦2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑦
3 − 𝑦2

𝑦2
= −2 ∫ − 𝑑𝑦
3 − 𝑦2

3 − 𝑦2 − 3
= −2 ∫ 𝑑𝑦
3 − 𝑦2
3
= −2 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑦
3 − 𝑦2
3 𝑦
= −2 (𝑦 − tanh−1 ( )) + 𝐶
√3 √3
Substituting for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:

√𝑥 + 1
= −2√𝑥 + 1 + 2√3 tanh−1 ( )+𝐶
√3

| P a g e 40
 𝑥
Ex 58: ∫ 𝑥+ 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√

Solution:
3
Let: 𝑦 = √𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦3 = 𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

Substituting in the integral:

𝑥 𝑦3
∴∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 + √𝑥 𝑦 +𝑦

𝑦4
= 3∫ 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 +1

By using the long division: 𝑦2 − 1 Result

𝑦2 + 1 𝑦4

𝑦4 + 𝑦2

−𝑦 2

−𝑦 2 − 1
1 Remainder

1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 3 ∫ (𝑦 2 − 1 + ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦2 + 1

𝑦3
= 3 ( − 𝑦 + tan−1 𝑦) + 𝐶
3

Substituting for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:

3 3
= 𝑥 − 3 √𝑥 + 3 tan−1 √𝑥 + 𝐶

| P a g e 41
 1
Ex 59: ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥+ √𝑥

Solution:
6
Let: 𝑥 = 𝑦 6 ⟹ 𝑦 = √𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 6𝑦 5 𝑑𝑦

Substituting in the integral:

1 𝑦5
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 3 𝑑𝑦
3
√𝑥 + √𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦2

𝑦3
= 6∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦+1

By using the long division:

𝑦2 − 𝑦 + 1

𝑦+1 𝑦3
𝑦3 + 𝑦2

−𝑦 2
−𝑦 2 − 𝑦

𝑦+1

−1
1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 6 (∫(𝑦 2 − 𝑦 + 1)𝑑𝑦 − ∫ 𝑑𝑦)
𝑦+1

𝑦3 𝑦2
= 6( − + 𝑦 − ln|𝑦 + 1|) + 𝐶
3 2

Substituting for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:

3 6 6
= 2√𝑥 − 3 √𝑥 + 6 √𝑥 − 6 ln| √𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶

| P a g e 42
 𝑥2
Ex 60: ∫ (𝑥+1)5 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
Let: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 ⟹ 𝑥=𝑦−1
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦

Substituting in the integral:

𝑥2 (𝑦 − 1)2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
(𝑥 + 1)5 𝑦5

𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦5

= ∫(𝑦 −3 − 2𝑦 −4 + 𝑦 −5)𝑑𝑦

𝑦 −2 2𝑦 −3 𝑦 −4
= − + +𝐶
−2 −3 −4
Substituting for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:
1 2 1
=− + − +𝐶
2(𝑥 + 1)2 3(𝑥 + 1)3 4(𝑥 + 1)4

3
Ex 61: ∫ 𝑥(3 − 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥2

Solution:
Let: 𝑦 = √3 − 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦2 = 3 − 𝑥
∴ 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑦2

∴ 𝑑𝑥 = −2𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Substituting in the integral:

3
∴ ∫ 𝑥 (3 − 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3 − 𝑦 2 )𝑦 3 (−2𝑦)𝑑𝑦

= −2 ∫ 𝑦 4 (3 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦

| P a g e 43
 = −2 ∫(3𝑦 4 − 𝑦 6 ) 𝑑𝑦

3𝑦 5 𝑦 7
= −2 ( − )+𝐶
5 7

Substituting for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:

6 5 2 7
= − (3 − 𝑥 )2 + (3 − 𝑥 )2 + 𝐶
5 7

Ex 62: ∫(2 − 𝑥 )2 (𝑥 + 5)7 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
Let: 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 5 ⟹ 𝑥=𝑦−5
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦

Note that: we substituted for the bracket with the largest power since
both powers are integers.

Substituting in the integral:

2
∴ ∫(2 − 𝑥 )2(𝑥 + 5)7 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2 − (𝑦 − 5)) 𝑦 7 𝑑𝑦

= ∫(7 − 𝑦)2 𝑦 7 𝑑𝑦

= ∫(49 − 14𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑦 7 𝑑𝑦

= ∫(49 𝑦 7 − 14 𝑦 8 + 𝑦 9 )𝑑𝑦

𝑦8 𝑦9 𝑦10
= 49 ( ) − 14 ( ) + +𝐶
8 9 10

Substituting for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥:

49 14 1
= (𝑥 + 5)8 − (𝑥 + 5)9 + (𝑥 + 5)10 + 𝐶
8 9 10

| P a g e 44
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, the integration process has been studied as an inverse
operation of the differentiation. First, the basics of integration has been
introduced. Second, the table of antiderivatives has been shown. Third,
the table has been generalized to include more functions. Finally,
integration by algebraic substitution has been studied.

| P a g e 45
 Chapter 2

2023 - 2024

| P a g e 46
 Chapter 2: Definite Integrals

In this chapter, we study the definite integral, its geometrical meaning,

and its properties.

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

• find the value of a definite integral

• know the concepts of the net area and the total area and how they
are related to the definite integral
• make benefit of some symmetry properties of the integrands to
simplify symmetric definite integrals

Definition:
The definite integral of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 is defined
as follows:
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹 (𝑥 )]𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎)
𝑎

where 𝐹 (𝑥 ) is an antiderivative for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ).

For the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ), shown in the figure, the definite integral gives the
area under the curve of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) and above the 𝑥-axis from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏.
𝑏

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎

| P a g e 47
Proof:
In the shown figure, define the area function 𝐴(𝑥 ) such that 𝐴(𝑥 ) is the
area under the curve of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) starting from 𝑎 to any value 𝑥.

For a small value ℎ, we can write:

𝐴(𝑥 + ℎ) ≅ 𝐴(𝑥 ) + ℎ 𝑓 (𝑥 )

𝐴(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝐴(𝑥 )
∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≅
ℎ

As ℎ → 0, this approximation improves. In the limit as ℎ → 0, we have:

𝐴(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝐴(𝑥 )
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑𝐴
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥
If 𝐹 (𝑥 ) is an antiderivative of 𝑓 (𝑥 ), then:

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴(𝑥 ) + 𝐶

But, from the definition of 𝐴(𝑥 ), we know that 𝐴(𝑎) = 0, then:

𝐶 = 𝐹 (𝑎)
Hence,
𝐴(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) − 𝐹 (𝑎)
At 𝑥 = 𝑏:
∴ 𝐴(𝑏) = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑏

∴ 𝐴(𝑏) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎

| P a g e 48
Properties of the definite integrals:
𝑎
(1) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
(2) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏

Note that, this property can be illustrated by the following figure:

Total Area = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝑏
∴ ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑐 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑎 𝑏
(3) ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
(4) ∫𝑎 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
(5) ∫𝑎 (𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏
(6) If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≥ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≥ 0.
𝑏
(7) If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≤ 0 for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ≤ 0.

| P a g e 49
The net area and the total area:
In the following figure, 𝑓 (𝑐 ) = 0. For 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑐, then 𝑓(𝑥 ) > 0 and
𝑐
hence ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 > 0, according to property (6). For 𝑐 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, then
𝑏
𝑓 (𝑥 ) < 0 and hence ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 < 0, according to property (7).

The net area is the difference between the area above the 𝑥-axis and the
area below the 𝑥-axis. It is given by:
𝑏

Net area = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

𝑎

The total area is the sum of the area above the 𝑥-axis and the area below
the 𝑥-axis. It is given by:
𝑏

Total area = ∫|𝑓 (𝑥 )|𝑑𝑥

𝑎

𝑐 𝑏
= |∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥| + |∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥|
𝑎 𝑐

The total area is given by the integration of the absolute of the function or
the sum of the absolute of integrations over intervals at which 𝑓(𝑥) is
always positive or always negative.

Note that, to get the total area, you must find the point at which 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0
in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]. This point is called the root of 𝑓(𝑥 ).
| P a g e 50
Examples
Ex 1: Find the total area and the net area between the curve of
the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) and the 𝑥-axis in the
interval [−1, 4].
Solution:
First, get the roots of 𝑓 (𝑥 ):

(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0

∴ 𝑥 = 2 or − 3

But 𝑥 = −3 ∉ [−1, 4]

Then, in the interval [−1, 4], the root of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is 𝑥 = 2 only.

2 4
Total area = |∫ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥| + |∫ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥|
−1 2

2 4
= |∫ (𝑥 + 𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥| + |∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥|
2
−1 2

2 4
𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥2
= |[ + − 6𝑥] | + |[ + − 6𝑥] |
3 2 −1
3 2 2

−22 37 16 −22 157

= | − |+| − |=
3 6 3 3 6
4

Also, the total area = ∫|(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)|𝑑𝑥

−1

4
Net area = ∫ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3) 𝑑𝑥
−1

4
= ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6) 𝑑𝑥
−1

4
𝑥3 𝑥2 16 37 5
= [ + − 6𝑥] = − =−
3 2 −1
3 6 6

| P a g e 51
Finding definite integrals using geometry:
2
Ex 2: Find ∫−2|𝑥 − 1|𝑑𝑥

Solution:
2

∫|𝑥 − 1|𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
−2

1 1
= (3)(3) + (1)(1)
2 2 𝐴1
=5 𝐴2

1
Recall: Area of the triangle = × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
2
height

base
Ex 3: For the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) shown in the figure, find
3
∫−1 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

Solution:
3

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2
−1

3 + 1.5 3+2
= ×3+ ×1
2 2
𝐴1 𝐴2
37
=
4

Recall: Area of the trapezoid =

𝑎+𝑏
×ℎ 𝑎
2

| P a g e 52
 3
Ex 4: Find ∫0 √9 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑦 = √9 − 𝑥 2 is the upper semicircle
3
1
∫ √9 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = Area of circle
4
0

1
= 𝜋(3)2
4
9
= 𝜋
4
Recall: Area of the circle = 𝜋𝑟 2

Note that: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 is the equation of a circle, but 𝑦 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2

and 𝑦 = −√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 are equations of semicircles as shown below:

| P a g e 53
 4
Ex 5: Find ∫−2 √9 − (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∵ 𝑦 = √9 − (𝑥 − 1)2

∴ 𝑦 2 = 9 − (𝑥 − 1)2 ,𝑦 ≥ 0

∴ (𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 ,𝑦 ≥ 0

A semicircle of radius 3 with center (1, 0)

∫ √9 − (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥 = Area of the semicircle

−2
1
= 𝜋(3)2
2
9
= 𝜋
2
2
Ex 6: Find ∫−2(1 + √4 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∵ 𝑦 = 1 + √4 − 𝑥 2

∴ 𝑦 − 1 = √4 − 𝑥 2

∴ (𝑦 − 1)2 = 4 − 𝑥 2 , (𝑦 − 1) ≥ 0

∴ 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 = 4 , 𝑦 ≥ 1
A semicircle of radius 2 with center (0, 1)
2

∫ (1 + √4 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = Area of the semicircle + Area of the rectangle

−2
1
= 𝜋(2)2 + 4 × 1
2
= 2𝜋 + 4

| P a g e 54
Ex 7: Find the net area and total area between the curve of the
function 𝑓(𝑥) and the 𝑥-axis in the interval [0, 4].

√4 − 𝑥 2 −2 < 𝑥 < 2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
−√1 − (𝑥 − 3)2 2<𝑥<4
Solution:
For 𝑦 = √4 − 𝑥 2

∴ 𝑦2 = 4 − 𝑥2 ,𝑦 ≥ 0

∴ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 4 , 𝑦 ≥ 0
radius= 2 and center (0, 0)

For 𝑦 = −√1 − (𝑥 − 3)2

∴ 𝑦 2 = 1 − (𝑥 − 3)2 ,𝑦 ≤ 0

∴ (𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 , 𝑦 ≤ 0
radius= 1 and center (3, 0)

1 1
Total area = 𝜋(2)2 + 𝜋(1)2
4 2
3𝜋
=
2

1 1
Net area = 𝜋(2)2 − 𝜋(1)2
4 2
𝜋
=
2

| P a g e 55
Symmetry properties in definite integrals:
(1) If 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function, i.e., 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥), then:
𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−𝑎 0

−𝑎 𝑎

(2) If 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function, i.e., 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥), then:

𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
−𝑎

−𝑎
𝑎

2
1 1+𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Ex 8: ∫−1 1+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
2
1 1 + 𝑒 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 1 1 1 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
−1 1 + 𝑥2 −1 1 + 𝑥 −1 1 + 𝑥

| P a g e 56
 2
1 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Note that: 𝑓(𝑥 ) = is an even function and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = is an odd
1+𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2
function.
1 1
∴ Integration = 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 0
0 1 + 𝑥2

= 2[tan−1 𝑥 ]10

= 2(tan−1(1) − tan−1(0))
𝜋
= 2 ( − 0)
4
𝜋
=
2

Finding definite integrals using substitution:

4 𝑥
Ex 9: ∫1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+√𝑥

Solution:
Let: 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 ⟹ 𝑦 = √𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦

At 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑦=1

At 𝑥 = 4 ⟹ 𝑦=2

Substituting in the integral:

4
𝑥 𝑦2 2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑥 + √𝑥 1 𝑦 + 𝑦

𝑦2 2
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦+1

2 (𝑦 2 − 1) + 1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦+1

| P a g e 57
 2 (𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 1) 1
= 2∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦+1 𝑦+1
2 1
= 2 ∫ (𝑦 − 1 + ) 𝑑𝑦
1 𝑦+1
2
𝑦2
= 2 [ − 𝑦 + ln|𝑦 + 1|]
2 1

1
= 2 ((ln 3) − (− + ln 2))
2

3
= 1 + 2 ln ( )
2

𝒃 𝒅𝒙
Important note on the integral ∫𝒂 :
𝟏−𝒙𝟐

Recall that:
𝑑 1
(tanh−1 𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
𝑑 𝑑 1 1 −1 1
(coth−1 𝑥 ) = (tanh−1 ( )) = 2 ×( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥2 1 − 𝑥2
1−( )
𝑥
The two functions, tanh−1 𝑥 and coth−1 𝑥, have the same formula for the
derivative, but since they do not have the same domain, the antiderivative
1
of depends on the interval at which 𝑥 lies on.
1−𝑥 2

We know that the domain of tanh−1 𝑥 is ]−1, 1[ and the domain of

coth−1 𝑥 is ℝ − [−1, 1]. Hence,
𝑑𝑥 tanh−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 for |𝑥| < 1
∫ = {
1 − 𝑥2 coth−1 𝑥 + 𝐶 for |𝑥| > 1

and this rule can be generalized as follows, for 𝑎 > 0:

| P a g e 58
 1 −1
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 tanh ( )+𝐶 for |𝑥| < 𝑎
∫ 2 ={𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 − 𝑥2 1 𝑥
coth−1 ( ) + 𝐶 for |𝑥| > 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎

0.5 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
Ex 10: Find ∫0 and ∫2
1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2

Solution:
0.5 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2
= [tanh−1 𝑥 ]0.5
0
0 1−𝑥

1
= tanh−1 ( ) − tanh−1(0)
2
1
= tanh−1 ( )
2
= 0.54931
3
𝑑𝑥
∫ = [coth−1 𝑥 ]32
2 1 − 𝑥2

= coth−1(3) − coth−1(2)

= −0.20273

Note that, later in this book, we will deduce a single formula for the
1 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
antiderivative of the function which can be used to calculate ∫𝑎
1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥 2
for any interval [𝑎, 𝑏] such that ±1 ∉ [𝑎, 𝑏].

Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, the definite integral and its geometric meaning has been
studied. Concepts such as the net area and the total area have been
introduced. Definite integrals with symmetric properties were also
studied.

| P a g e 59
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 60
 Chapter 3: Integration by Parts

In this chapter, we study integration by parts method. The method is

usually used when the integrand is the product of two types of functions.
The method is also used when the integrand is an inverse function.

By the end of this chapter the student should be able to:

• know when it is suitable to use the by parts method

• apply by parts method correctly, specially when the method is
used successively in some integrals
• have the skill to treat integrals that return to their origin after
applying by parts method

By Parts Formula
For two differentiable functions 𝑢(𝑥 ) and 𝑣(𝑥 ):
𝑑
(𝑢𝑣 ) = 𝑢 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣 𝑢′
𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥:

𝑢𝑣 = ∫(𝑢 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣 𝑢′ ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑢′ 𝑑𝑥

∵ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢′ 𝑑𝑥

𝑢𝑣 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 + ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢

∴ ∫ 𝒖 𝒅𝒗 = 𝒖𝒗 − ∫ 𝒗 𝒅𝒖

The previous formula is the rule of integration by parts. It is commonly

used in the following two cases:

| P a g e 61
 1) When the integrand is not easy to be integrated but it is easy to
be differentiated.
e. g. ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ sin−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, …

2) Product of two functions of two different types.

e. g. ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, …

Illustrative example:
𝐼 = ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

To solve this integration, we will use the integration by parts. In this

problem 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑥.

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢 = (ln 𝑥 )(𝑥 ) − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 ln 𝑥

1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

If the integrand is product of two functions of two different types, the

function 𝑢 is selected according to the following priorities:

(1) L Logarithmic function. ln 𝑥

(2) A Algebraic. (Polynomials) 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , ⋯

(3) T Trigonometric. sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, sec 2 𝑥, cosec 2 𝑥, ⋯

(4) E Exponential. 𝑒𝑥

Illustrative example:
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

| P a g e 62
The integrand is the product of 𝑥 by ln 𝑥, then we will select 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 and
the integral will be rewritten as follow:
1
∴ 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2
Hence, we will use the integration by parts, where 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 and 𝑣 = 𝑥 2 .

1
∴𝐼= ((ln 𝑥 )(𝑥 2) − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑 ln 𝑥)
2

1 2 1
= (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥)
2 𝑥
1 2
= (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
2
1 2 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 4

Examples
Ex 1: ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Select 𝑢 = 𝑥

∴ ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 sin 𝑥

= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 – ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 𝐶

Ex 2: ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Select 𝑢 = 𝑥

| P a g e 63
∴ ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑒 𝑥

= 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

Ex 3: ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
Select 𝑢 = 𝑥 2

∴ ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑 sin 𝑥

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 cos 𝑥

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2 (𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

Note that if the integral is ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, integration by parts will be

applied 𝑛 times.

Another solution: (The tabular method)

To solve: ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑥2 + cos 𝑥
Integration

𝑑 2𝑥 − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 − cos 𝑥
+
0 − sin 𝑥

| P a g e 64
The solution is obtained by adding the signed products of the diagonal
entries. The terms are with alternating signs (wrote on the arrow).

∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +(𝑥 2 )(sin 𝑥 ) − (2𝑥 )(− cos 𝑥 ) + (2)(− sin 𝑥 ) + 𝐶

= 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 − 2 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

The tabular method is valid if the integrand is a product of two functions,

one of them is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 and the other function can be
integrated 𝑛 + 1 times.

Ex 4: ∫ 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Select 𝑢 = 𝑥

∴ ∫ 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 tan 𝑥

= 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶

Ex 5: ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Select 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
1
∴ ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3
3
1 3
= (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑 ln 𝑥)
3
1 3 1
= (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 3 ( ) 𝑑𝑥)
3 𝑥

| P a g e 65
 1 3
= (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥)
3
1 3 1
= 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝐶
3 9
This problem cannot be solved using the tabular method because ln 𝑥 is
difficult to be integrated 3 times.

Ex 6: ∫ √𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Select 𝑢 = ln 𝑥
2 3
( )
∴ ∫ √𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
3
2 (3) 3
= (𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 (2) 𝑑 ln 𝑥)
3
2 (3) (2) 1
3
= (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥
2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥)
3 𝑥
2 (3) 1
= (𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 (2) 𝑑𝑥)
3
2 (3) 2 (3)
= (𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
3 3
2 4
= 𝑥 √𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 √𝑥 + 𝐶
3 9

Ex 7: ∫(ln 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫(ln 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 )2 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 (ln 𝑥 )2

1
= 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 )2 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 ) ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

| P a g e 66
 = 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 )2 − 2 ∫(ln 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

1
= 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 )2 − 2 (𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥)
𝑥
= 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 )2 − 2𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 𝐶

Ex 8: ∫ 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
∫ 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2
1 1
= (𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥)
2 1 + 𝑥2
1 2 −1
1 + 𝑥2 − 1
= (𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥)
2 1 + 𝑥2

1 1
= (𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 − ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥)
2 1 + 𝑥2
1
= (𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 − 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑥 ) + 𝐶
2
1 1 1
= 𝑥 2 tan−1 𝑥 − 𝑥 + tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2 2
2
Ex 9: ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
2 1 2
∫ 𝑥 3𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2
Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
1
∴ Integration = ∫ 𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2

| P a g e 67
 1
= ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑒 𝑦
2
1
= (𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑦)
2
1
= (𝑦 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 ) + 𝐶
2
1 2 𝑥2 1 𝑥2
= 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 +𝐶
2 2

Ex 10: ∫ 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
∫ 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 (1 + cos 2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2

𝑥 cos 2𝑥
+

Integration
1
𝑑 1 sin 2𝑥
− 2
𝑑𝑥 1
0 − cos 2𝑥
4

2
1 𝑥2 1 1 1
∴ ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ( ) + ((𝑥 ) ( sin 2𝑥) − (1) (− cos 2𝑥)) + 𝐶
2 2 2 2 4

1 2 1 1
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 + cos 2𝑥 + 𝐶
4 4 8

Ex 11: ∫ sin−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫ sin−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 sin−1 𝑥

| P a g e 68
 1
= 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
1 −2𝑥
= 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 √1 − 𝑥 2
1
= 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 + (2√1 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2

= 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 + √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶

Ex 12: ∫ cos 3√𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
3
Let 𝑦 = √𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑦3

∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 3𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦

∴ Integration = ∫(cos 𝑦)(3𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦

= 3 ∫ 𝑦 2 cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑦

𝑦2 + cos 𝑦
Integration

𝑑 2𝑦 − sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2 − cos 𝑦
+
0 − sin 𝑦

∴ Integration = 3(+(𝑦 2 )(sin 𝑦) − (2𝑦)(− cos 𝑦) + (2)(− sin 𝑦)) + 𝐶

3 3 3 3 3
= 3 √𝑥 2 sin √𝑥 + 6 √𝑥 cos √𝑥 − 6 sin √𝑥 + 𝐶

Ex 13: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

| P a g e 69
Solution:

∴ 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑒 𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑒 𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝐼

∴ 𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 𝐼

2𝐼 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1 𝑥 1
∴𝐼= 𝑒 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
2 2
Note that the integration by parts can be repeated endlessly without
reaching the value of the integral, but after two times of applying
integration by parts, the integral is repeated as shown. In the same
manner, the integral ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can be calculated.

Ex 14: ∫ cos(ln 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Let: 𝑡 = ln 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑡
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Substituting in the integral:

∴ 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

This integral was calculated in the previous problem.

| P a g e 70
 1 𝑡 1
∴𝐼= 𝑒 cos 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡 sin 𝑡 + 𝐶
2 2
1 1
∴𝐼= 𝑥 cos(ln 𝑥 ) + 𝑥 sin(ln 𝑥 ) + 𝐶
2 2

Ex 15: ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∴ 𝐼 = ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(sec 𝑥 )(sec 2 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

= ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑 tan 𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑 sec 𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫(tan2 𝑥 ) sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝐼 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|

∴ 𝐼 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − 𝐼 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|

2𝐼 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|

1 1
∴𝐼= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
2 2

| P a g e 71
Applying integration by parts in definite integrals:
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = [𝑢𝑣 ]𝑏𝑎 − ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑎

2
Ex 16: ∫1 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
2 2 1 2
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 ln 𝑥 ]12 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑 ln 𝑥 = 2 ln 2 − ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
1 1 1 𝑥

= 2 ln 2 − [𝑥 ]12

= 2 ln 2 − 1

Or you can find the indefinite integral, first:

∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

Then substituting by the limits of the definite integral:

2
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 ]12
1

= (2 ln 2 − 2) − (−1)

= 2 ln 2 − 1

| P a g e 72
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we have shown the technique of integration by parts. The
rule of integration by parts has been applied in solving problems with a
product of two types of functions and in problems with inverse functions.
Integrals that return to their origin were also studied.

| P a g e 73
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 74
 Chapter 4: Integration by Successive Reduction

In this chapter we learn how to find a reduction formula for some

integrals in a generic form. Mostly the technique of by parts is used.
However, some other manipulations can be applied to find the reduction
formula. Applying the reduction formula to evaluate some integrals is
shown. By means of the reduction formula, Wallis’ formula are deduced
and applied.

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

• find the reduction formula for some generic integrals

• apply the reduction formula to evaluate special case integrals
• apply Wallis’ formula

Introduction
To evaluate the integral ∫ 𝑥 6 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, we need to apply the integration by
parts 6 times or using the tabular method. The integral ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
needs integration by parts 𝑛 times. In this chapter, we introduce a
technique to find a simpler way to find these types of integration. This
technique based on finding a formula called the recurrence relation or the
reduction formula as we will show in the examples.

Examples
Ex 1: 𝑈𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
𝑈𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑎
Integrating by parts
1 𝑛 𝑎𝑥
= (𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑥)
𝑎

| P a g e 75
 1 𝑛 𝑎𝑥 𝑛 Reduction formula
∴ 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑈𝑛−1 (recurrence relation)
𝑎 𝑎
Using this reduction formula successively we can evaluate the integral.

e.g. If you want to evaluate 𝑈6 = ∫ 𝑥 6 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 from 𝑈0 = ∫ 𝑥 0𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑛 2𝑥 𝑛 𝑛>0
∴ 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑈𝑛−1
2 2
1 6 2𝑥
𝑛=6 ⟹ 𝑈6 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 3𝑈5
2
1 5 2𝑥 5
𝑛=5 ⟹ 𝑈5 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑈4
2 2
1 4 2𝑥
𝑛=4 ⟹ 𝑈4 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 2𝑈3
2
1 3 2𝑥 3
𝑛=3 ⟹ 𝑈3 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑈2
2 2
1 2 2𝑥
𝑛=2 ⟹ 𝑈2 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑈1
2
1 1
𝑛=1 ⟹ 𝑈1 = 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑈0
2 2
𝑒 2𝑥
𝑈0 = ∫ 𝑥 0 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶0 base integral
2

Using backward substitution, we can get 𝑈6 .

1 2𝑥 1 2𝑥
𝑈1 = 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝐶1
2 4
1 2 2𝑥 1 2𝑥 1 2𝑥
𝑈2 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝐶2
2 2 4
1 3 2𝑥 3 2 2𝑥 3 2𝑥 3 2𝑥
𝑈3 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝐶3
2 4 4 8
1 4 2𝑥 3 3 3
𝑈4 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 3 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝐶4
2 2 2 4
1 5 2𝑥 5 4 2𝑥 5 3 2𝑥 15 2 2𝑥 15 2𝑥 15 2𝑥
𝑈5 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝐶5
2 4 2 4 4 8
| P a g e 76
 1 6 2𝑥 3 5 2𝑥 15 4 2𝑥 15 3 2𝑥 45 2 2𝑥 45 2𝑥
𝑈6 = 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑥𝑒
2 2 4 2 4 4
45 2𝑥
+ 𝑒 +𝐶
8

Ex 2: Find a reduction formula for the integral:

𝑈𝑛 = ∫ sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
𝜋
then use it to evaluate ∫0 sec 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4

Solution:

𝑈𝑛 = ∫ sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = ∫ sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑 tan 𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑 sec 𝑛−2 𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 2) ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 𝑛−3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 2) ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 2) ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 2)𝑈𝑛 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑈𝑛−2

(1 + 𝑛 − 2) 𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑈𝑛−2

(𝑛 − 1) 𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + (𝑛 − 2)𝑈𝑛−2

1 𝑛−2 𝑛≥2
𝑈𝑛 = sec 𝑛−2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝑈
𝑛−1 𝑛 − 1 𝑛−2 ,𝑛 > 1

| P a g e 77
Base integrals

𝑈0 = ∫ sec 0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑈1 = ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶

𝜋
To evaluate ∫0 sec 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 :
4

1 3
𝑛=5 ⟹ 𝑈5 = sec 3 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝑈3
4 4
1 1
𝑛=3 ⟹ 𝑈3 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝑈1
2 2
𝑈1 = ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶

Therefore,
1 3 1 1
𝑈5 = sec 3 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ( sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶)
4 4 2 2
1 3 3
= sec 3 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
4 8 8
𝜋 𝜋
4 1 3 3 4
∴ ∫ sec 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ sec 3 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥|]
0 4 8 8 0

1 3 3 3
= ( × (√2) + × √2 + ln|√2 + 1|) − (0)
4 8 8
7 3
= √2 + ln(√2 + 1)
8 8
𝜋 𝜋
Recall: sec = √2 , tan = 1, sec 0 = 1, and tan 0 = 0.
4 4

Ex 3: Find a reduction formula for the integral:

𝑈𝑛 = ∫ sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
Solution:

𝑈𝑛 = ∫ sin𝑛−1 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

| P a g e 78
𝑈𝑛 = − ∫ sin𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑 cos 𝑥

𝑈𝑛 = − (sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 1) ∫ cos 2 𝑥 sin𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

𝑈𝑛 = − (sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 1) ∫ (1 − sin2 𝑥) sin𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥)

𝑈𝑛 = −(sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 − (𝑛 − 1)𝑈𝑛−2 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑈𝑛 )

(1 − 1 + 𝑛)𝑈𝑛 = − sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑈𝑛−2

1 𝑛−1
𝑈𝑛 = − sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑈𝑛−2 𝑛>1
𝑛 𝑛

Base integrals

𝑈0 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑈1 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝝅
In case of 𝑼𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 :
𝟐

𝜋
1 2 𝑛−1
𝑈𝑛 = [− sin𝑛−1 𝑥 cos 𝑥] + 𝑈𝑛−2
𝑛 0 𝑛

𝑛−1
∴ 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛−2 𝑛>1
𝑛
𝜋
2 𝜋
𝑈0 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
0 2
𝜋
𝜋
2
𝑈1 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −[cos 𝑥 ]02 =1
0
𝝅
Similarly, if 𝑼𝒏 = ∫𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙:

𝑛−1
∴ 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛−2 𝑛>1
𝑛

| P a g e 79
 𝜋
2 𝜋
𝑈0 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
0 2
𝜋
𝜋
2
𝑈1 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [sin 𝑥 ]02 =1
0

These two cases are known as Wallis’ formulas. They can be written as:
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
∫ sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝑛−1 𝑛−3 𝑛−5 1 𝜋
( )( )( )⋯( )( ) , 𝑛 even
𝑛 𝑛−2 𝑛−4 2 2
=
𝑛−1 𝑛−3 𝑛−5 2
( )( )( ) ⋯ ( ) (1) , 𝑛 odd
{ 𝑛 𝑛−2 𝑛−4 3
𝜋 𝜋
Proof of: ∫0 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 cos𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑛 2

Proof
𝜋
For 𝐼 = ∫02 sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
let 𝑥 = − 𝑦 ⟹ 𝑦= − 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑦
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
At 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 = and at 𝑥 = ⟹ 𝑦=0
2 2

0
𝜋
∴ 𝐼 = ∫ sin𝑛 ( − 𝑦)(−𝑑𝑦)
𝜋 2
2

𝜋
∵ sin ( − 𝑦) = cos 𝑦
2
𝜋
2
∴ 𝐼 = ∫ cos 𝑛 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0

Replacing 𝑦 by 𝑥 (dummy variable)

𝜋
∴ 𝐼 = ∫0 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 Proved

| P a g e 80
 𝜋
Ex 4: ∫0 cos 8 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

Solution:
Using Wallis’ formulas:
𝜋
2 7 5 3 1 𝜋 35
∴ ∫ cos 8 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = × × × × = 𝜋
0 8 6 4 2 2 256

𝜋
Ex 5: ∫0 sin7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

Solution:
Using Wallis’ formulas:
𝜋
2 6 4 2 16
∴ ∫ sin7 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = × × ×1 =
0 7 5 3 35

𝜋
Ex 6: ∫0 sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝜋
𝜋
2 4 2 16
∫ sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 × × ×1=
0 0 5 3 15
𝜋
𝜋
Graphical proof for ∫0 sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2

| P a g e 81
 𝜋
The graph of 𝑦 = sin5 𝑥 is symmetric about 𝑥 =
2
𝜋
𝜋
2
∴ ∫ sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0

Analytical proof by substitution

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
For 𝐼 = ∫0 sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑦 = 𝑥 − ⟹ 𝑥 =𝑦+ ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
2 𝜋 5 2
∴ 𝐼 = ∫ (sin(𝑦 + )) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ cos 5 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
−
𝜋 2 −
𝜋
2 2

(cos 5 𝑦 is an even function)

𝜋
2
∴ 𝐼 = 2 ∫ cos 5 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0

Replacing 𝑦 by 𝑥 (dummy variable)

𝜋
2
∴ 𝐼 = 2 ∫ sin5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Note: the graphical proof is easier.

𝜋
Ex 7: ∫0 cos 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
For 𝐼 = ∫0 cos 5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑦 = 𝑥 − ⟹ 𝑥=𝑦+ ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
2 𝜋 5 2
∴ 𝐼 = ∫ (cos(𝑦 + )) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (− sin 𝑦)5𝑑𝑦
−
𝜋 2 −
𝜋
2 2

(sin 𝑦 is an odd function)

∴𝐼=0

| P a g e 82
Graphical proof:
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑦 = cos 5 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
2 2

𝜋
Ex 8: ∫0 cos 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑦 = cos 4 𝑥

𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2

𝜋
𝜋 2 3 1 𝜋 3𝜋
∴ ∫ cos 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ cos 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ( × × ) =
0 0 4 2 2 8

| P a g e 83
 𝜋
Ex 9: ∫0 sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑦 = sin4 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 2

𝜋
𝜋 2 3 1 𝜋 3𝜋
∴ ∫ sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ( × × ) =
0 0 4 2 2 8

Or Analytically:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
For 𝐼 = ∫0 sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 let 𝑦 = 𝑥 − ⟹ 𝑥 =𝑦+ ⟹ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
2 𝜋 4 2
∴ 𝐼 = ∫ (sin(𝑦 + )) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (cos 𝑦)4 𝑑𝑦
−
𝜋 2 −
𝜋
2 2
(cos 𝑦 is an even function)
𝜋
2 3 1 𝜋 3𝜋
∴ 𝐼 = 2 ∫ cos 4 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 2 ( × × ) =
0 4 2 2 8

| P a g e 84
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we studied the integration by successive reduction. It was
shown how to find the reduction formula for some integrals and how to
apply the deduced reduction formula to evaluate specific integrals.
Wallis’ formula was deduced in a similar manner.

| P a g e 85
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 86
 Chapter 5: Integration of Trigonometric
Functions

In this chapter, systematic techniques are used to solve some forms of

integrals of trigonometric functions.

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

• classify the given trigonometric integral

• apply the suitable method for the given integral

Introduction
In this chapter, we will study two types of integrations that contain
trigonometric functions. The two types are:

Type 1: Integrations of the form ∫ sin𝑚 𝑥 cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Type 2: Integrations of the form ∫ tan𝑚 𝑥 sec 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Type 1: Integrations of the form ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝒎 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝑚 or 𝑛 is positive odd integer or both 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive even integers.

are positive odd integers.

In this case, we will use:

In this case, we will use: 1
sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑 cos 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥 )
2
or:
1
cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥 )
2
depending on which function is
with the odd power.
Also, sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 = 1 may
be used.

| P a g e 87
Examples
Ex 1: ∫ cos4 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫ cos 4 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ cos 4 𝑥 𝑑 cos 𝑥

cos 5 𝑥
=− +𝐶
5

Ex 2: ∫ cos4 𝑥 sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∫ cos 4 𝑥 sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 4 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ cos 4 𝑥 (1 − cos 2 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= − ∫(cos 4 𝑥 − cos 6 𝑥 ) 𝑑 cos 𝑥

cos 5 𝑥 cos 7 𝑥
=− + +𝐶
5 7

Ex 3: ∫ √sin 𝑥 cos5 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
5
∫ √sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin2 𝑥 (cos 2 𝑥 )2 𝑑 sin 𝑥

1
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 (1 − sin2 𝑥 )2𝑑 sin 𝑥

1
= ∫ sin2 𝑥 (1 − 2sin2 𝑥 + sin4 𝑥)𝑑 sin 𝑥

| P a g e 88
 1 5 9
= ∫(sin2 𝑥 − 2 sin2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥)𝑑 sin 𝑥

7 11
2 3 2 sin2 𝑥 sin 2 𝑥
= sin 𝑥 −
2 + +𝐶
3 7 11
2 2
2 3 4 7 2 11
= sin2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 + sin 2 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 7 11

Ex 4: ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
1
∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(1 − cos 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 Using the double angle rule
2
1 sin 2𝑥
= (𝑥 − )+𝐶
2 2

Ex 5: ∫ sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
2
4
1
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( (1 − cos 2𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
2

1
= ∫(1 − 2 cos 2𝑥 + cos 2 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
4
1 1
= ∫ (1 − 2 cos 2𝑥 + (1 + cos 4𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥
4 2

1 sin 2𝑥 1 1 sin 4𝑥
= (𝑥 − 2 + 𝑥+ )+𝐶
4 2 2 2 4
1 1 1 1
= 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + 𝑥 + sin 4𝑥 + 𝐶
4 4 8 32

| P a g e 89
 Ex 6: ∫(sin2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫(sin2 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥

2
1
= ∫ ( sin 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= ∫ (1 − cos 4𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
4 2
1 sin 4𝑥
= (𝑥 − )+𝐶
8 4
1 1
= 𝑥− sin 4𝑥 + 𝐶
8 32

Type 2: Integrations of the form ∫ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝒎 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒏 𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝑚 is positive odd 𝑛 is positive even 𝑚 is positive even integer

integer. integer. & 𝑛 is positive odd integer.

Use: Use: Integration by parts

tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 will be used.
= 𝑑 sec 𝑥 = 𝑑 tan 𝑥
e.g. ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

| P a g e 90
Examples
Ex 7: ∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑 sec 𝑥

1
= sec 3 𝑥 − sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

Ex 8: ∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∫ tan3 𝑥 sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑 sec 𝑥

= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1) sec 2 𝑥 𝑑 sec 𝑥

1 1
= sec 5 𝑥 − sec 3 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 3

Ex 9: ∫ tan5 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫ tan5 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(tan2 𝑥)2 𝑑 sec 𝑥

= ∫(sec 2 𝑥 − 1)2 𝑑 sec 𝑥

| P a g e 91
 = ∫(sec 4 𝑥 − 2 sec 2 𝑥 + 1) 𝑑 sec 𝑥

sec 5 𝑥 sec 3 𝑥
= −2 + sec 𝑥 + 𝐶
5 3

Ex 10: ∫ tan 𝑥 √sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
sec 𝑥
∫ tan 𝑥 √sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥 √sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
sec 𝑥
1
=∫ 𝑑 sec 𝑥
√sec 𝑥

= 2√sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

Ex 11: ∫ tan4 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∫ tan4 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan4 𝑥 𝑑 tan 𝑥

tan5 𝑥
= +𝐶
5

Ex 12: ∫ tan4 𝑥 sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∫ tan4 𝑥 sec 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan4 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑 tan 𝑥

tan5 𝑥 tan7 𝑥
= + +𝐶
5 7

| P a g e 92
Ex 13: ∫ tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Solution:

∫ tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑 sec 𝑥

sec 2 𝑥
= +𝐶
2
Another Solution:

∫ tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑 tan 𝑥

tan2 𝑥
= + 𝐶1
2
Note that, the two solutions are equivalent because tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 − 1
tan2 𝑥 1 sec2 𝑥
Hence, + 𝐶1 = (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶1 = +𝐶
2 2 2

Ex 14: ∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∫ tan2 𝑥 sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 − 1) sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(sec 3 𝑥 − sec 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

1 1
= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| − ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
2 2
1 1
= sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 − ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
2 2
1 1
Recall: ∫ sec 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + ln|sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥| + 𝐶
2 2

This integration was solved before using integration by parts in chapter 3.

| P a g e 93
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we studied the integration of some forms of trigonometric
functions and how to systematically manipulate them to be in solvable
forms. Two types were basically introduced, integrals with sin and cos
raised to some power, and integrals with sec and tan (or alternatively,
cosec and cot) raised to some power. The suitable treatment for each case
was studied.

| P a g e 94
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 95
 Chapter 6: Integration by Trigonometric and
Hyperbolic Substitutions

In this chapter, we will study two types of substitutions. They are used to
eliminate the roots √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 , and √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 from the
integrand.

By the end of this chapter, the student should be able to:

• decide when to use a trigonometric (or hyperbolic) substitution

• apply the substitution correctly
• re-substitute to return the result of the integral to the original
variable

The described techniques are based on substituting 𝑥 by a trigonometric

or a hyperbolic function as shown in the following table.

The suitable substitution

Term
Trigonometric Hyperbolic
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 tanh 𝛼
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sech2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝜶 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝜶
𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 sinh 𝛼
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 cosh 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
√𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝜶 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝜶
𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 cosh 𝛼
∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 ∴ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 sinh 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 − 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 𝒂𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝜶 − 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝜶

In one problem, you can use trigonometric substitution or hyperbolic

substitution. In some cases, one substitution is easier than the other.

| P a g e 96
Examples

Ex 1: ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Let 𝑥 = sin 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

∴ ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 − sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1
= ∫(1 + cos 2𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
2
1 sin 2𝜃
= (𝜃 + )+𝐶
2 2
To write the result in terms of 𝑥, draw the right triangle of the angle 𝜃.
1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 ) + 𝐶 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥
2
1 1 1
= sin−1𝑥 + 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2 2 𝑥

Ex 2: ∫ √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

Solution:
Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

∴ ∫ √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sec 𝜃 sec 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ∫ sec 3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

1 1
Recall: ∫ sec 3 𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| + 𝐶
2 2

This integration was solved before using integration by parts in chapter 3.

1 1
∴ Integration = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 + ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| + 𝐶
2 2

| P a g e 97
 1 1
= 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2 + ln |𝑥 + √1 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
2 2

√1 + 𝑥 2
𝑥

𝜃
Alternative Solution: 1
Let 𝑥 = sinh 𝛼 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = cosh 𝛼 𝑑𝛼

∴ ∫ √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 + sinh2 𝛼 cosh 𝛼 𝑑𝛼

= ∫ cosh2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼

1
= ∫(1 + cosh 2𝛼 ) 𝑑𝛼
2
1 sinh 2𝛼
= (𝛼 + )+𝐶
2 2
1
= (𝛼 + sinh 𝛼 cosh 𝛼 ) + 𝐶
2
1
= (sinh−1 𝑥 + 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
2

Note that: cosh 𝛼 = √1 + sinh2 𝛼 = √1 + 𝑥 2

Hint: Hyperbolic functions cannot be

represented geometrically by a triangle like
the trigonometric functions, however, a 1
𝑥
shortcut by a fake triangle as shown, cosh 𝛼
can be determined easily. This method was
invented by Dr. Islam Abdul Maksoud and √1 + 𝑥 2
you can find more details in the following
video links:

Video: Triangle Methods in Trigonometric & Hyperbolic Functions - Dr.

Islam Abdul Maksoud

| P a g e 98
Video: The origin of fake triangle method invented by Dr. Islam Abdul
Maksoud

𝑑𝑥
Ex 3: ∫
𝑥 2 √4−𝑥 2

Solution:
Let 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 1 2 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∴∫ = ∫
𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2 4 sin2 𝜃 √4 − 4 sin2 𝜃
1 𝑑𝜃
= ∫ 2
4 sin 𝜃
1
= ∫ cosec 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4
1
= − cot 𝜃 + 𝐶
4 2
𝑥
−1 √4 − 𝑥2
= ( )+𝐶 𝜃
4 𝑥
√4 − 𝑥 2

√𝑥 2 −25
Ex 4: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

Solution:
Let 𝑥 = 5 sec 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 5 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑥
sec 𝜃 =
5
√𝑥 2 − 25 5 tan 𝜃
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 5 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥 5 sec 𝜃 𝑥
√𝑥 2 −25
2
= 5 ∫ tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜃
5
= 5 ∫(sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃

| P a g e 99
 = 5(tan 𝜃 − 𝜃 ) + 𝐶

√𝑥 2 − 25 𝑥
= 5( − sec −1 ( )) + 𝐶
5 5

𝑥
= √𝑥 2 − 25 − 5 sec −1 ( ) + 𝐶
5
You can try to use the substitution 𝑥 = 5 cosh 𝛼 to solve this problem.

𝑥 2 tan−1𝑥
Ex 5: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑥 2

Solution:
Let 𝑥 = tan 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

(In this problem, we must use the trigonometric substitution)

𝑥 2 tan−1𝑥 𝜃 tan2 𝜃 sec 2 𝜃

∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝜃
1 + 𝑥2 sec 2 𝜃

= ∫ 𝜃 tan2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ∫ 𝜃 (sec 2 𝜃 − 1) 𝑑𝜃

𝜃2
= ∫ 𝜃 𝑑 tan 𝜃 − +𝐶
2
𝜃2
= 𝜃 tan 𝜃 − ∫ tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − +𝐶
2
√1 + 𝑥 2
𝜃2 𝑥
= 𝜃 tan 𝜃 − ln|sec 𝜃| − +𝐶
2
𝜃
1

1
= 𝑥 tan−1𝑥 − ln |√1 + 𝑥 2 | − (tan−1𝑥)2 + 𝐶
2
| P a g e 100
 1 1
= 𝑥 tan−1𝑥 − ln(1 + 𝑥 2 ) − (tan−1𝑥)2 + 𝐶
2 2

𝑥
Ex 6: ∫ 𝑥 3 cos −1 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
4

Solution:
𝑥
Let = cos 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = −4 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4

𝑥
∴ ∫ 𝑥 3 cos −1 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = −4 ∫(4 cos 𝜃 )3 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4

= −(4)4 ∫ 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= (4)4 ∫ 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝜃 𝑑 cos 𝜃

(4)4
= ∫ 𝜃 𝑑cos 4 𝜃
4

= 43 (𝜃 cos 4 𝜃 − ∫ cos 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃)

2
3 4
1
= 4 (𝜃 cos 𝜃 − ∫ ( (1 + cos 2𝜃 )) 𝑑𝜃)
2

1
= 43 (𝜃 cos 4 𝜃 − ∫(1 + 2cos 2𝜃 + cos 2 2𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃)
4

1 2 sin 2𝜃 1 1 sin 4𝜃
= 43 (𝜃 cos 4 𝜃 − (𝜃 + + 𝜃+ ( )))
4 2 2 2 4
+𝐶

Using the triangle: 4

√16 − 𝑥 2
∴ sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝜃
√16 − 𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= 2( ) ( ) = √16 − 𝑥 2
4 4 8

| P a g e 101
∴ sin 4𝜃 = 2 sin 2𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = 2 sin 2𝜃 (2 cos 2 𝜃 − 1)

𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥
√ 2
= 2 ( 16 − 𝑥 ) (2 ( ) − 1) = √16 − 𝑥 2 − √16 − 𝑥 2
8 16 32 4

∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 64 𝜃 cos 4 𝜃 − 24 𝜃 − 16 sin 2𝜃 − 2 sin 4𝜃 + 𝐶

𝑥4 𝑥 𝑥
= cos −1 ( ) − 24 cos −1 ( ) − 2𝑥 √16 − 𝑥 2
4 4 4
3
𝑥 𝑥
− √16 − 𝑥 2 + √16 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
16 2
𝑥4 𝑥 𝑥 3
= cos −1 ( ) − 24 cos −1 ( ) − 𝑥 √16 − 𝑥 2
4 4 4 2
3
𝑥
− √16 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
16
𝑑𝑥
Ex 7: ∫
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 +4

Solution:
Let 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝜃 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

Ex

𝑑𝑥 2 sec 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
∴∫ =∫
𝑥 2 √𝑥 2 + 4 4 tan2 𝜃 (2 sec 𝜃 )
1 sec 𝜃
= ∫ 𝑑𝜃
4 tan2 𝜃
1 cos 2 𝜃
= ∫ 2 𝑑𝜃
4 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1 cos 𝜃
= ∫ 𝑑𝜃
4 sin2 𝜃
1
= ∫(sin 𝜃 )−2𝑑 sin 𝜃
4
1 (sin 𝜃 )−1
= × +𝐶
4 −1

| P a g e 102
 √𝑥 2 + 4
1 √𝑥 2 + 4 𝑥
=− × +𝐶
4 𝑥 𝜃
√𝑥 2 + 4 2
=− +𝐶
4𝑥
𝑥2
Ex 8: ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3𝑥 2 +7
Solution:
7 7
Let 𝑥 = √ sinh 𝛼 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = √ cosh 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
3 3
𝑥2 1 𝑥2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√3𝑥 2 + 7 √3 7
√𝑥 2 +
3
7
1 sinh2 𝛼 7
= ∫ 3 √ cosh 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
√3 3
√7 (sinh2 𝛼 + 1)
3
1 7
= ∫ sinh2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
√3 3
7 1
= × ∫(cosh 2𝛼 − 1) 𝑑𝛼
3√3 2
7 sinh 2 𝛼
= ( − 𝛼) + 𝐶
6√3 2
7
= (sinh 𝛼 cosh 𝛼 − 𝛼 ) + 𝐶
6√3
7 √3 𝑥 √3𝑥 2 + 7 3
= ( × − sinh−1 (√ 𝑥)) + 𝐶
6√3 √7 √7 7

1 7 3
= 𝑥 √3𝑥 2 + 7 − sinh−1 (√ 𝑥) + 𝐶
6 6√3 7

Note that:
√3𝑥 2 + 7 √7
cosh 𝛼 = √1 + sinh2 𝛼 = √3𝑥
√7
or you can use the shown fake triangle.

√3𝑥 2 + 7
| P a g e 103
 7
Hint: you can try to use the substitution 𝑥 = √ tan 𝜃, but the solution
3
will be lengthy.

Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we studied the integration by trigonometric substitution
and hyperbolic substitution to manipulate forms of integrals containing
quadratic expressions with square root or raised to negative power. The
steps of re-substitution to return the result of the integral to be in terms of
the original variable were also studied.

| P a g e 104
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 105
 Chapter 7: Integration by Partial Fractions

In this chapter, we study the use of partial fractions in solving integrals of

rational algebraic functions. Several forms are studied with the
convenient treatment for each form.

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• determine if the integral needs long division or not.

• perform long division for integrals the need to.
• put the correct assumption for the partial fractions based on the
form of the given fraction.
• determine the constants of the partial fractions.
• perform the integral after partial fractions are completely
determined.

Introduction
Let’s start with:

7 2 7(𝑥 − 5) − 2(𝑥 + 2) 5𝑥 − 39
− = = 2
𝑥+2 𝑥−5 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 5) 𝑥 − 3𝑥 − 10

Partial fractions Fraction

Any fraction is a partial fraction if:

1) The degree of numerator < degree of denominator.

2) The denominator cannot be factorized (prime).

If the degree of the numerator ≥ the degree of the denominator (improper

fraction), then perform the long division.

Steps of partial fractions

1) Make sure that degree of numerator < degree of denominator. If
not, perform the long division and work on the new fraction.
| P a g e 106
 2) Factorization of denominator into:
- Linear (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
- Repeated linear (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
- Irreducible quadratic form (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ), where 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0

Examples
Ex 1: Factorize the following quantities:

1) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 5) 𝑥 2 − 16
2) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 6 6) 𝑥 2 + 16
3) 𝑥 3 − 8 7) 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
4) 𝑥 3 + 8 8) 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
Solution:

1) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4)
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
2) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 (𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡) =
2𝑎

−2 ± 2√7
𝑥 = = −1 ± √7
2

∴ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 6 = (𝑥 + 1 − √7)(𝑥 + 1 + √7)

3) 𝑥 3 − 8 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4)
Note: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 4 is a prime factor (irreducible quadratic form).

4) 𝑥 3 + 8 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4)

5) 𝑥 2 − 16 = (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4)

6) 𝑥 2 + 16 cannot be factorized (prime)

𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 − 4(1)(16) = −𝑣𝑒 < 0

| P a g e 107
 7) 𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 6𝑥
= 𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6)
= 𝑥 (𝑥 − 6)(𝑥 + 1)

8) 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
By grouping
= 2𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 2) − (𝑥 − 2)
= (𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥 2 − 1)
= (𝑥 − 2)(√2𝑥 − 1)(√2𝑥 + 1)

Assumptions of partial fractions

Assume the partial fraction according to the following table, then find
the constants.

Factor of the How to find the

Partial fraction assumption
denominator constants
1) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝐴
Distinct linear By covering
factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
𝐴1, 𝐴2, ⋯, 𝐴𝑛−1
by substitution or by
2) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛 equating
Repeated linear + +
factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 coefficients
𝐴𝑛 only by covering

𝐴 and 𝐵 by
3) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 substitution or by
Irreducible
equating
quadratic factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 coefficients
𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0

𝐴1𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐵2 𝐴1, 𝐴2, ⋯, 𝐴𝑛

2 )𝑛 +
4) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , ⋯, 𝐵𝑛
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )2
Repeated by substitution or
irreducible 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛 equating
+⋯+
quadratic factor (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )𝑛 coefficients

| P a g e 108
Examples
𝑥 3 +4𝑥 2 −𝑥−16
Ex 2: Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8

Solution:
Start with the fraction

𝑥 3 +4𝑥2 −𝑥−16
Step 1: 𝑥 3 > 𝑥 2 long division
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−8

Remainder
Faction = Result +
Denom 𝑥+2

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥

2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 − 16
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 16

3𝑥

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16 3𝑥
= 𝑥 + 2 +
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8

Step 2: factorize Work on this

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4)

Step 3:

Assume partial fractions (P.Fs) accoring to the table , the find the
constants
3𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 4) 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 4

Get 𝐴 and 𝐵 by covering:

| P a g e 109
 3𝑥
𝐴= | =1
𝑥 + 4 𝑥=2
3𝑥
𝐵= | =2
𝑥 − 2 𝑥=−4

Then write P.Fs

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 16 2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫( 𝑥 + 2 + + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥+4 𝑥−2
𝑥2
= + 2𝑥 + 2 ln|𝑥 + 4| + ln|𝑥 − 2| + 𝑐
2

sin 2𝑥
Ex 3: Evaluate ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥+3 sin 𝑥+2

Solution:
2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑 sin 𝑥
sin2 𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥 + 2 sin2 𝑥 + 3 sin 𝑥 + 2
Let sin 𝑥 = 𝑦
2𝑦 2𝑦
∴∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 + 2 (𝑦 + 2)(𝑦 + 1)

Assume partial fractions (P.Fs) accoring to the table , the find the
constants
2𝑦 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑦 + 2)(𝑦 + 1) 𝑦 + 2 𝑦 + 1

Get 𝐴 and 𝐵 by covering:

2𝑦
𝐴= | =4
(𝑦 + 1) 𝑥=−2

2𝑦
𝐵= | = −2
(𝑦 + 2) 𝑥=−1

| P a g e 110
 2𝑦 4 −2
∴∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 + 2 𝑦+2 𝑦+1

= 4 ln|𝑦 + 2| − 2 ln|𝑦 + 2| + 𝑐

= ln(|𝑦 + 2|4 |𝑦 + 1|−2) + 𝑐

𝑦 → sin 𝑥

= ln(|sin 𝑥 + 2|4 |sin 𝑥 + 1|−2) + 𝑐

𝑥−3
Ex 4: Evaluate ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
−1)

Solution:
Step 1: degree of numerator < degree of denominator ⟹ (no long
division).

Step 2: factorize denominator.

Step 3: assume P.Fs, then determine the constants.

𝑥−3 𝑥−3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= = + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥 + 1

𝐵 and 𝐶 by covering:
𝑥−3
𝐵= | = −1
(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥=1

𝑥−3
𝐶= | = −1
(𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥=−1

Get 𝐴 by substitution:

Multiply both sides by (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)

𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) ∗ (𝑥 + 1) + 𝐵 (𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐 (𝑥 − 1)2

Choose for example 𝑥 = 0. Substituting in both sides:

−3 = 𝐴(−1) − (1) − (1) ⟹ 𝐴=1

| P a g e 111
 1 1 1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∫ ( − − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2 𝑥 + 1

= ln|𝑥 − 1| + (𝑥 − 1)−1 − ln|𝑥 − 1| + 𝑐

5𝑥 2 +6𝑥+2
Ex 5: Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥+2)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+5)

Solution:
Assume

5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5 is irreducible quadratic form 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 4 − 4(5) < 0

We can get 𝐴 by covering:

5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2
𝐴= 2 | =2
(𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5) 𝑥=−2

Get 𝐵 and 𝐶 by substitution or equating coefficients.

Let’s try equating coefficients:

Multiply both sides by (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5)

5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 2)

5𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐴𝑥 + 5𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 2𝐶

Equating coefficients of 𝑥 2 : 5 =𝐴+𝐵 ⟹ 𝐵=3

Equating coefficients of 𝑥 0 : 2 = 5𝐴 + 2𝐶 ⟹ 𝐶 = −4

Then rewrite the fraction as:

2 3𝑥 − 4
∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+2 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5
4
3 2 (𝑥 − )
= 2 ln|𝑥 + 2| + ∫ 2 3 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5

| P a g e 112
 Break the numerator to two parts:
𝑑 derivative of denominator + constant
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5) = 2𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑥

8
3 2𝑥 + 2 − 2 −
∴ Integration = 2 ln|𝑥 + 2| + ∫ ( 2 3) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5

14
3 2𝑥 + 2 3
= 2 ln|𝑥 + 2| + ∫ ( 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 5 (𝑥 + 1)2 + 4

3 14 1 (𝑥 + 1)
= 2 ln|𝑥 + 2| + (ln|𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 5| − × tan−1 )+𝑐
2 3 2 2

2 |𝑥 2
3 7 𝑥+1
= ln (|𝑥 + 2| + 2𝑥 + 5|2) − tan−1 ( )+𝑐
2 2

1
Ex 6: Evaluate ∫ 2 (𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +1)(𝑥 2 −2)

Solution:
Can we solve it by covering? Yes!
1 1
→ if we put 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 →
𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥 2 −2) 𝑦(𝑦+1)(𝑦−2)

(Note: this is not a substitution of the integral but a substitution of the

partial fractions)

By covering:
1 1 1 1
1 − ( )×( )
= 2 + −1 −3 + 2 × 3
𝑦(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 2) 𝑦 𝑦+1 𝑦−2
1 1 1
1 −
= 2 + 3 + 6
𝑦(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 2) 𝑦 𝑦+1 𝑦−2

| P a g e 113
 1 1 1
−
∴ Integration = ∫ ( 22 + 2 3 + 2 6 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 −2

1 𝑥 −1 1 1 1 𝑥
=− × + tan−1 𝑥 + (− tanh−1 ) + 𝑐
2 −1 3 6 √2 √2

𝑑𝑥
Ex 7: Evaluate ∫ (𝑥2
+1)(𝑥 2 +3)

Solution:
1 1
(𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥 2 +3)
→ if we put 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 → (𝑦+1)(𝑦+3)

By covering:
1 1
1 −
= 2 + 2
(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 + 3) 𝑦 + 1 𝑦 + 3
1 1
𝑑𝑥
∴∫ 2 = ∫ 2 2 − 2 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑥 +1 𝑥 +3
1 1 1 𝑥
= tan−1 𝑥 − × tan−1 +𝑐
2 2 √3 √3

𝑥
Ex 8: Evaluate ∫ (𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
+1)(𝑥 2 −2)

Solution:
𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 2) 2 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 2)

put 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 (Note: this is a substitution of the integral not a substitution of

the partial fractions)
1 𝑑𝑦
∴ Integration = ∫
2 (𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 2)

| P a g e 114
By covering:
1 1
1 −
= 3 + 3
(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 2) 𝑦 + 1 𝑦 − 2
1 1
1 −
∴ Integration = ∫ ( 3 + 3 ) 𝑑𝑦
2 𝑦+1 𝑦−2

1 1 1
= (− ln|𝑦 + 1| + ln|𝑦 − 2|)
2 3 3
1 1 1
= (− ln|𝑥 2 + 1| + ln|𝑥 2 − 2|) + 𝑐
2 3 3

𝑑𝑥
Ex 9: Evaluate ∫
sin 𝑥(1−sin 𝑥)

Solution:
1 1 1
= +
sin 𝑥 (1 − sin 𝑥 ) sin 𝑥 1 − sin 𝑥

(We will put sin 𝑥 = 𝑦 then find partial fractions by covering)

𝑑𝑥 1 1
∴∫ = ∫( + ) 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥 (1 − sin 𝑥 ) sin 𝑥 1 − sin 𝑥
1 + sin 𝑥
= ∫ cosec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(1 − sin 𝑥 )(1 + sin 𝑥 )

= ∫ cosec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫(sec 2 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

= ln|cosec 𝑥 − cot 𝑥| + tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 + 𝑐

| P a g e 115
 cos 𝑥
Ex 10: Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑥(1−sin 𝑥)

Solution:
cos 𝑥 𝑑 sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫
sin 𝑥 (1 − sin 𝑥 ) sin 𝑥 (1 − sin 𝑥 )

Let sin 𝑥 = 𝑦:
𝑑𝑦
∴ Integration = ∫
𝑦(1 − 𝑦)

Using partial fractions:

1 1 1
∴ = +
𝑦(1 − 𝑦) 𝑦 1 − 𝑦
1 1
∴ Integration = ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 1−𝑦

= ln|𝑦| − ln|1 − 𝑦| + 𝑐
sin 𝑥
= ln ( )+𝑐
1 − sin 𝑥
= ln|sin 𝑥| − ln|1 − sin 𝑥| + 𝑐

ln2 𝑥
Ex 11: Evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(1+ln 𝑥)2

Solution:
ln2 𝑥 ln2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑 ln 𝑥
𝑥 (1 + ln 𝑥 )2 (1 + ln 𝑥 )2

Let ln 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑦2
∴ Integration = ∫ (1+𝑦)2 𝑑𝑦

We can find partial fractions directly without the traditional steps as

follows:

| P a g e 116
 2
((𝑦 + 1) − 1)
∴ Integration = ∫ 𝑑𝑦
(1 + 𝑦)2

(𝑦 + 1)2 − 2(𝑦 + 1) + 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑦
(1 + 𝑦 ) 2
2 1
= ∫ (1 − + ) 𝑑𝑦
(𝑦 + 1) (1 + 𝑦)2

(𝑦 + 1)−1
= 𝑦 − 2 ln|𝑦 + 1| + +𝑐
−1
1
= ln 𝑥 − 2 ln|ln 𝑥 + 1| − +𝑐
ln 𝑥 + 1

𝑥 5 −1
Ex 12: Evaluate ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥
𝑥2 + 1
Solution: 𝑥3 − 𝑥 𝑥5 − 1
By using long division
𝑥5 − 𝑥3
𝑥5 − 1 2
𝑥−1
= 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥3 − 1
𝑥3 − 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥−1 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝑥3 − 𝑥
Let: = = +
𝑥(𝑥−1)(𝑥+1) 𝑥(𝑥+1) 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝑥−1
1 1
𝐴 = = 1 and 𝐵 = = −1 by covering
1 −1

𝑥5 − 1 1 1
∴∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 + 1 + − ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝑥3
= + 𝑥 + ln|𝑥| − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐
3

| P a g e 117
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 13: Evaluate ∫
1+𝑒 2𝑥

Solution:
𝑒 −2𝑥
You have learnt before to solve it by multiplying by
𝑒 −2𝑥

Now, we will solve it again but by partial fractions.

𝑑𝑥 𝒆𝟐𝒙
∫ = ∫ 𝟐𝒙 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 𝒆 (1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 )

1 𝑑𝑒 2𝑥
= ∫ 2𝑥
2 𝑒 (1 + 𝑒 2𝑥 )

Let 𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑦
1 𝑑𝑦
∴ Integration = ∫
2 𝑦(1 + 𝑦)
1 1 1
= ∫( − ) 𝑑𝑦
2 𝑦 𝑦+1
1
= (ln|𝑦| − ln|𝑦 + 1|) + 𝑐
2
1
= (ln 𝑒 2𝑥 − ln(𝑒 2𝑥 + 1)) + 𝑐
2
1 𝑒 2𝑥
= ln 2𝑥 +𝑐
2 𝑒 +1
𝑒𝑥
= ln +𝑐
√𝑒 2𝑥 + 1

| P a g e 118
 𝑑𝑥
Ex 14: Evaluate ∫ (
tan 𝑥+1) sin2 𝑥

Solution:
𝑑𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑥
(tan 𝑥 + 1) sin2 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 + 1) sin2 𝑥 . sec 2 𝑥
𝑑 tan 𝑥
=∫
tan2 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 + 1)

Let 𝑦 = tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
∴ Integration = ∫
𝑦 2 (𝑦 + 1)

By partial fractions:
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 2+ +
𝑦 2 (𝑦+ 1) 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦+1

Multiply both sides by 𝑦 2 (𝑦 + 1)

1 = 𝐴(𝑦 + 1) + 𝐵 (𝑦)(𝑦 + 1) + 𝐶𝑦 2

By substitution:

Put 𝑦 = −1 ⟹ 𝐶=1

𝑦=0 ⟹ 𝐴=1

𝑦=1 ⟹ 1 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 ⟹ 𝐵 = −1
1 1 1
∴ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ∫ ( − + ) 𝑑𝑦
𝑦2 𝑦 𝑦 + 1

= −𝑦 −1 − ln 𝑦 + ln|𝑦 + 1| + 𝑐
1 tan 𝑥 + 1
=− + ln ( )+𝑐
tan 𝑥 tan 𝑥

| P a g e 119
 𝑥
𝑒2
Ex 15: Evaluate ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(1+𝑒 2 )(1−𝑒 𝑥 )

Solution:
𝑥 𝑥
𝑒2 𝑑 𝑒2
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑥
(1 + 𝑒 2 ) (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) (1 + 𝑒 2 ) (1 − 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑥
Put 𝑒 2 = 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
∴ Integration = 2 ∫ = 2 ∫
(1 + 𝑦)(1 − 𝑦 2 ) (1 + 𝑦)2(1 − 𝑦)

By partial fraction
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(1 + 𝑦)2(1 − 𝑦) (1 + 𝑦)2 1 + 𝑦 1 − 𝑦

[Get 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 by substitution] [or you can get 𝐴, 𝐶 by covering]

1 = 𝐴(1 − 𝑦) + 𝐵 (1 + 𝑦)(1 − 𝑦) + 𝐶 (1 + 𝑦)2

1
Put 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 1 = 4𝐶 ⟹ 𝐶=
4

1
𝑦 = −1 ⟹ 1 = 2𝐴 ⟹ 𝐴=
2

1
𝑦=0 ⟹ 1=𝐴+𝐵+𝐶 ⟹ 𝐵 =
4

1 1 1
∴ Integration = 2 ∫ ( 2 + 4 + 4 ) 𝑑𝑦
(1 + 𝑦)2 1+𝑦 1−𝑦

1 1
1
= ∫( + 2 + 2 ) 𝑑𝑦
(1 + 𝑦)2 1 + 𝑦 1 − 𝑦
1 1 1
=− + ln|1 + 𝑦| − ln|1 − 𝑦| + 𝑐
1+𝑦 2 2
𝑥
1 1 1 + 𝑒2
=− 𝑥 + ln | 𝑥| + 𝑐
1+𝑒 2 2 1 − 𝑒2

| P a g e 120
Recall:
𝑑𝑥 tanh−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 for |𝑥| < 1
∫ = {
1 − 𝑥2 coth−1 𝑥 + 𝑐 for |𝑥| > 1

and generally, for 𝑎 > 0:

1 −1
𝑥
𝑑𝑥 tanh ( )+𝑐 for |𝑥| < 𝑎
∫ 2 ={ 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎 − 𝑥2 1 𝑥
coth−1 ( ) + 𝑐 for |𝑥| > 𝑎
𝑎 𝑎
In the following example, we will introduce an alternative formula for the
1
antiderivative of the function which can be used to calculate
𝑎2 −𝑥 2
𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
∫𝑥 for any interval [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ] such that ±𝑎 ∉ [𝑥1, 𝑥2 ].
1 𝑎2 −𝑥 2

1
Ex 16: Using partial fractions, find ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 −𝑥 2

Solution:
1 1 𝐴 𝐵
= = +
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 (𝑎 + 𝑥 )(𝑎 − 𝑥 ) 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑥
1 1
= 2𝑎 + 2𝑎 (Using covering)
𝑎+𝑥 𝑎−𝑥
1 1 1 1
∴ = ( + )
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 2𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
∴∫ =∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 −𝑥 2 2𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑥 𝑎 − 𝑥
1 1
= ln|𝑎 + 𝑥| − ln|𝑎 − 𝑥| + 𝑐
2𝑎 2𝑎
1 𝑎+𝑥
= ln | |+𝑐
2𝑎 𝑎−𝑥

| P a g e 121
 0.5 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
Ex 17: Find ∫0 2
and ∫2
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 2

Solution:
0.5 𝑑𝑥 1 1 + 𝑥 0.5
∫ = [ ln | |]
0 1 − 𝑥2 2 1−𝑥 0
1 1
= ln 3 − ln 1
2 2
1
= ln 3
2
= 0.54931
3
𝑑𝑥 1 1+𝑥 3
∴∫ 2 = [2 ln |1 − 𝑥 |]
2 1−𝑥 2

1 1
= ln 2 − ln 3
2 2
1 2
= ln ( )
2 3
= −0.20273

Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, the integration using partial fractions has been studied.
Different forms of algebraic fractions were studied with the appropriate
mathematical manipulation.

| P a g e 122
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 123
 Chapter 8: Applications of Definite Integrals

There are many applications of definite integrals. In this chapter, we will

study the following applications:

1) Orthogonal functions.
2) The average value of a function.
3) Area
a) Between a curve and the 𝑥-axis.
b) Between a curve and the 𝑦-axis.
c) Between two or more curves.
4) Volume of solid generated by rotating a region about a given axis
of rotation.

(1) Orthogonal functions:

The functions 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are called orthogonal functions in the
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if:
𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎

Examples:
Ex 1: Prove that sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are orthogonal functions in the
interval [0, 2𝜋]
Solution:
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 2 0
1
=− [cos 2𝑥 ]2𝜋
0
2×2

| P a g e 124
 1
= − (cos 4𝜋 − cos 0) = 0
4
2𝜋
∵ ∫ sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0
0

∴ sin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are orthogonal functions in the interval [0,2𝜋]

(2) The average value of a given function:

The average value of a function 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is given by:

𝑏
1
𝑓𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎 𝑎

𝑏
Note that: 𝑓𝑎𝑣 × (𝑏 − 𝑎) = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Hence, the net area between the curve of

𝑓(𝑥) and the 𝑥-axis on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
equals to the area of a rectangle with
base (𝑏 − 𝑎) and height 𝑓𝑎𝑣 .

| P a g e 125
Examples:
Ex 2: What is the average value of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 on the interval [2, 4]
Solution:
1 4
𝑓𝑎𝑣 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
4−2 2
4
1 𝑥3
= [ ]
2 3 2

1 3 28
= (4 − 23 ) =
6 3

(3) Areas:
a) Between a curve and the 𝑥-axis.
b) Between a curve and the 𝑦-axis.
c) Between two or more curves.

a) Area between a curve and the 𝒙-axis:

𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Vertical strip

| P a g e 126
b) Area between a curve and the 𝒚-axis

𝑑
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑐

Horizontal strip

Note that: We may not need to draw if the required area is between a
curve and the 𝑥-axis or the 𝑦-axis.

Examples:
Ex 3: Find the area between the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 and the 𝑥-axis
in the interval [0, 3]
Solution:
3
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −[𝑒 −𝑥 ]30 = [𝑒 −𝑥 ]03 = 𝑒 0 − 𝑒 −3 = 1 − 𝑒 −3 unit of area
0

Graphs (Curves) of famous functions:

(1) The straight line:
The straight line can be plotted using two points:

e.g., draw 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1

𝑥 0 −1 (−1,0) (0,1)
𝑦 1 0

| P a g e 127
Special cases:

(a) The vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎: (b) The horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑎:

(c) The line 𝑦 = 𝑥: (d) The line 𝑦 = −𝑥:

𝜋 3𝜋
4 4

| P a g e 128
(2) The Circle:
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟 2 (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘 )2 = 𝑟 2

Center: (0, 0) Center: (ℎ, 𝑘 )

Radius: 𝑟 Radius: 𝑟

(3) The parabola:

𝑥 = 𝑦2 𝑥 = −𝑦 2

Horizontal to the right Horizontal to the left

| P a g e 129
 𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = −𝑥 2

Vertical upwards Vertical downwards

1
(4) 𝑦=
𝑥

| P a g e 130
 1 1
(5) 𝑦= (6) 𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝑥2

(7) 𝑦 = 𝑥3 (8) 𝑦 = |𝑥|

Examples:
Ex 4: Find the area between the curve of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and the
𝑥-axis
Solution:
𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝑦 = −(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥)

𝑦 = −((𝑥 − 2)2 − 4) = −(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4

𝑦 − 4 = −(𝑥 − 2)2

| P a g e 131
A vertical downwards parabola with vertex (2, 4).

To get the points of intersection between 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 0 (the 𝑥-

axis):

0 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2

0 = 𝑥(4 − 𝑥)

∴ 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 4

∴ Intersection points are: (0,0) and (4,0)

By taking vertical strip:

4
4
2)
𝑥3 2
(
∴ 𝐴 = ∫ 4𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [2𝑥 − ]
0 3 0

64 32
= (32 − ) − (0) = unit of area
3 3
[Hint: No Need to draw in this problem]

Ex 5: Find the area between the curve of 𝑥 = 8 + 2𝑦 − 𝑦 2 and

the 𝑦-axis
Solution:
Intersection points between 𝑥 = 8 + 2𝑦 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑥 = 0 are given by:

0 = 8 + 2𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ⟹ 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0

(𝑦 + 2)(𝑦 − 4) = 0

∴ 𝑦 = −2 and 𝑦 = 4

∴ Intersection points are: (0, −2) and (0,4)

4
4
2 2
𝑦3
𝐴 = ∫ (8 + 2𝑦 − 𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = [8𝑦 + 𝑦 − ]
−2 3 −2

= 36 unit of area

| P a g e 132
c) Area between two or more curves:
Vertical strip Horizontal strip
𝑏 𝑑
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑓𝑈 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓𝐷 (𝑥 ))𝑑𝑥 𝐴 = ∫ (𝑔𝑅 (𝑦) − 𝑔𝐿 (𝑦))𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐

Examples:
Ex 6: Find the area between the curves of 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
Solution:
Intersection points between 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 2:

𝑥 = 𝑥2

𝑥 − 𝑥2 = 0
𝑥=0 , 𝑦=0
𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 ) = 0 ⟹ {
𝑥=1 , 𝑦=1

∴ Intersection points are: (0, 0) and (1, 1)

| P a g e 133
 Vertical strip or Horizontal strip

1 1
2)
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 = ∫ (√𝑦 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0 0

1 1
𝑥2 𝑥3 2 3 𝑦2
=[ − ] = [ 𝑦2 − ]
2 3 0 3 2 0

1 1
= unit of area = unit of area
6 6
Ex 7: Find the area between the curves of 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 𝑥, and
𝑦 = 2𝑥
Solution:

𝑦=𝑥 𝑥 0 1
𝑦 0 1

𝑦 = 2𝑥
𝑥 0 1
𝑦 0 2
1
1
𝑥2 11
𝐴 = ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = unit of area
0 0 2 0 2

| P a g e 134
Ex 8: Find the area between the curves of 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2
in the first quadrant.
Solution:
1. Points of intersection
Solving 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2
𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 2
𝑦2 − 𝑦 − 2 = 0
(𝑦 + 1)(𝑦 − 2) = 0
𝑦 = −1 , 𝑦 = 2

At 𝑦 = −1 ⟹ 𝑥 = 1

and at 𝑦 = 2 ⟹ 𝑥 = 4

2. Draw 𝑦2 = 𝑥
Draw 𝑦=𝑥−2

3. Specify the area in the 1st quadrant by taking a horizontal strip

2
𝐴 = ∫ ((𝑦 + 2) − (𝑦 2 ))𝑑𝑦
0.

2
𝑦2 𝑦3 10
= [ + 2𝑦 − ] = unit of area
2 3 0 3

Ex 9: Find the area between the curves of 𝑥 2 = 2 − 𝑦, 𝑦 = 𝑥,

and the 𝑦-axis in the first quadrant.
Solution:
1- Points of intersection
Solving 𝑥 2 = 2 − 𝑦 and 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑥2 = 2 − 𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
𝑥 = 1 , 𝑥 = −2

| P a g e 135
 At 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 1

and at 𝑥 = −2 ⟹ 𝑦 = −2

∴ Intersection points are: (1, 1) and (−2, −2)

2- Draw 𝑥 2 = 2 − 𝑦
Draw 𝑥 2 = −(𝑦 − 2) downwards vertical parabola with vertex
(0, 2)
3- Specify the area in the first quadrant by taking a vertical strip
1
𝐴 = ∫ ((2 − 𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥 ))𝑑𝑥
0

1
𝑥3 𝑥2 7
= [2𝑥 − − ] = unit of area
3 2 0 6

Ex 10: Find the area between the curves of 𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
Solution:
1- Points of intersection
4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 = 0
𝑥 (2𝑥 − 6) = 0
𝑥 = 0 ,𝑥 = 3

At 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 = 0 and at 𝑥 = 3 ⟹ 𝑦 = 3

∴ Intersection points are: (0, 0) and (3, 3)

| P a g e 136
2- Draw each curve

𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝑦 = −(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥)

𝑦 = −((𝑥 − 2)2 − 4)

𝑦 = −(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4

𝑦 − 4 = −(𝑥 − 2)2

Vertical downwards parabola with vertex (2, 4)

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥

𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)2 − 1

𝑦 + 1 = (𝑥 − 1)2

Vertical upwards parabola with vertex (1, −1)

3- To specify the area, take vertical strip

3
𝐴 = ∫ ((4𝑥 − 𝑥 2) − (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥
0

3
= ∫ (6𝑥 − 2𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0

2 3 32
= [3𝑥 − 𝑥 ] = 9 unit of area
3 0

| P a g e 137
(4) Volume of solid generated by rotating a region about
any given axis:
When rotating a region about an axis of rotation the strip must be
perpendicular ⏊ to the axis of rotation.

Rotation about the 𝑥-axis Rotation about the 𝑦-axis

Vertical strip Horizontal strip

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Recall that:

Volume of a solid disk = 𝜋𝑟 2ℎ

𝑟

2 2
Volume of a disk with cavity = 𝜋(𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑟𝑖𝑛 )ℎ
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑟𝑖𝑛

| P a g e 138
Rules:
𝑏 𝑑
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐
𝑏 𝑑
2 2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑔(𝑦)) 𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐

𝑏 𝑑
𝐴 = ∫ (𝑓𝑈 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓𝐷 (𝑥 ))𝑑𝑥 𝐴 = ∫ (𝑔𝑅 (𝑦) − 𝑔𝐿 (𝑦))𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐
𝑏 𝑑
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑓𝑈 2 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓𝐷 2(𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (𝑔𝑅 2(𝑦) − 𝑔𝐿 2(𝑦))𝑑𝑦
𝑎 𝑐

𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 𝑓𝐷 (𝑥 ) and 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑓𝑈 (𝑥 ) 𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 𝑔𝐿 (𝑦) and 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑔𝑅 (𝑦)

| P a g e 139
Examples:

Ex 11: Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = √𝑥 , 𝑦 = 0,

and 𝑥 = 4 and find the volume of the solid generated by rotating
the region about the 𝑥-axis
Solution:
By taking vertical strip
4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

16
= unit of area
3
4 4
2
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜋 ∫ (√𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 8𝜋 unit of volume
0 0

Ex 12: Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝑥 and

𝜋
𝑦 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ and find the volume of the solid
2
generated by rotating the region about the 𝑥-axis
Solution:

𝜋
2
𝐴 = ∫ 2 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
= [−2 cos 𝑥 ]02 = 2 unit of area
𝜋
2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (2 sin 𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥
0
𝜋
2
= 4𝜋 ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 2 unit of volume
0

| P a g e 140
Ex 13: Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 =
√𝑥 and find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the
region about the 𝑥-axis
Solution:
Points of intersection:

√𝑥 = 𝑥 2

𝑥 = 𝑥4 ,𝑥 ≥ 0

∴ 𝑥4 − 𝑥 = 0

𝑥 (𝑥 3 − 1) = 0

∴ 𝑥 = 0 ,𝑥 = 1

At 𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑦 = 0 and at 𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 1

∴ Intersection points are: (0, 0) and (1, 1)

1 1
𝐴 = ∫ (√𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = unit of area
0 3
1
2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ ((√𝑥) − (𝑥 2 )2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0

1 3
= 𝜋 ∫ (𝑥 − 𝑥 4 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 unit of volume
0 10

| P a g e 141
Ex 14: Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑥 = √4 − 𝑦 ,
𝑦 = 0, and 𝑥 = 0 and find the volume of the solid generated by
rotating the region about the 𝑦-axis
Solution:

4 16
𝐴 = ∫ √4 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = unit of area
0 3
4
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ (4 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
0

= 8𝜋 unit of volume

𝑥2
Ex 15: Find the area of the region bounded by 𝑦 = , 𝑥 = 0,
4
and 𝑦 = 1 in the first quadrant and find the volume of the solid
generated by rotating the region about the 𝑥-axis
Solution:
𝑥2
Intersection point between 𝑦 = 1 and 𝑦 = :
4

𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑦=
1= ⟹ ∴ 𝑥 = ±2 4
4

Using a vertical strip

2 𝑥2 4
𝐴 = ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥 = unit of area
0 4 3

| P a g e 142
 𝑥2
A disk with cavity 𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1
4

2
2
2
𝑥2 2
𝑥4
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ ((1) − ( ) ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫ (1 − ) 𝑑𝑥
0 4 0 16

8
= 𝜋 unit of volume
5

Ex 16: Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the

region bounded by 𝑥 = √4𝑦, 𝑥 = 0, and 𝑦 = 1 about 𝑦 = 2

Solution:
𝑥2
A disk with cavity 𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 1 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 2 −
4

𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑖𝑛

2
2 𝑥2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ ((2 − ) − (1)2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 4

2 𝑥4
2
= 𝜋 ∫ (3 − 𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
0 16
2
𝑥3 𝑥5
= 𝜋 [3𝑥 − + ]
3 16 × 5 0

56
= 𝜋 unit of volume
15

| P a g e 143
Ex 17: Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating the
region bounded by 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = 0, and 𝑥 = 0 in the first
quadrant about 𝑥 = 3
Solution:
A disk with cavity 𝑟𝑖𝑛 = 3 − √4 − 𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 3

𝑟𝑖𝑛

𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡

4
2
𝑉 = 𝜋 ∫ ((3)2 − (3 − √4 − 𝑦) ) 𝑑𝑦
0

4
= 𝜋 ∫ (6√4 − 𝑦 − 4 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑦
0

= 24𝜋 unit of volume

| P a g e 144
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we studied the applications of the definite integrals. First,
the orthogonal functions. Second, the average value of a function. Third,
the area between a curve and the 𝑥-axis and between a curve and the 𝑦-
axis. Then, the area between two or more curves. Finally, the volume of
solid generated by rotating a region about a given axis of rotation.

| P a g e 145
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 146
 Chapter 9: Improper Integrals

𝑏
The definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 represents the area under the curve of
𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏. It is calculated by:
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

where 𝐹(𝑥) is the antiderivative of 𝑓(𝑥).

The concept of the definite integrals is extended to study the following

two cases:

(1) The interval of integration is unbounded, infinite limits of

integration.
(Improper integrals of type I)

(2) The function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) has infinite discontinuity in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏].

(Improper integrals of type II)

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• determine if a given integral is improper or not

• determine if an improper integral is of type I or type II
• treat each of the two types with the adequate procedure

| P a g e 147
Type I: Integrals with Infinite Limit
∞
(a) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑡
If ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists for every number 𝑡 ≥ 𝑎, then:
∞ 𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑡→∞ 𝑎
𝑡
If lim ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿, then:
𝑡→∞
∞
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent to 𝐿 if the limit exists (𝐿 ≠ ±∞).
∞
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent if the limit does not exist (𝐿 = ±∞).

𝑏
(b) ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑏
If ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists for every number 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, then:
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞ 𝑡→−∞ 𝑡
𝑏
If lim ∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐿, then:
𝑡→−∞
𝑏
∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent to 𝐿 if the limit exists (𝐿 ≠ ±∞).
𝑏
∫𝑡 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is divergent if the limit does not exist (𝐿 = ±∞).

∞
(c) ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

𝑎 ∞
If both integrals ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 convergent, then:
∞ 𝑎 ∞
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ 𝑎

𝑎 𝑡
= lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + lim ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑡→−∞ 𝑡 𝑡→∞ 𝑎

| P a g e 148
Recall:
Convergent + Convergent = Convergent

Divergent + any = Divergent

Examples:
∞ 𝑑𝑥
Ex 1: Discuss the convergence of ∫1
𝑥

Solution:
1
∞
𝑑𝑥 𝑡
1 𝑦=
∫ = lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1 𝑥

= lim [ln|𝑥|]1𝑡
𝑡→∞ 1
= lim (ln 𝑡 − ln 1)
𝑡→∞

=∞ limit does not exist

Recall: ln ∞ → ∞
∞ 𝑑𝑥
∴ ∫1 is divergent
𝑥

∞ 𝑑𝑥
Ex 2: Discuss the convergence of ∫1
𝑥2

Solution:
∞ 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 = lim ∫ 𝑥 −2𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1

1𝑡
= lim [− ]
𝑡→∞ 𝑥 1
1
= lim (1 − ) = 1
𝑡→∞ 𝑡
∞ 𝑑𝑥
∴ ∫1 is convergent to 1
𝑥2

| P a g e 149
Recall that:
∞ ∞
1 1
∑ is divergent, while ∑ 2 is convergent.
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

0
Ex 3: Evaluate ∫−∞ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, if it is possible

Solution:
0 0
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = lim ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
−∞ 𝑡→−∞ 𝑡

= lim [𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ]0𝑡

𝑡→−∞

= lim ((−1) − (𝑡𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑡 ))

𝑡→−∞

= lim (−1 − 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑡 ) Recall: 𝑒 −∞ → 0

𝑡→−∞

= −1 − lim 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 + 0 (−∞ × 0)
𝑡→−∞

𝑡 −∞
= −1 − lim ( )
𝑡→−∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 ∞
Applying L’ Hôpital’s rule:
1
= −1 − lim
𝑡→−∞ −𝑒 −𝑡

= −1 + lim 𝑒 𝑡
𝑡→−∞

= −1 + 0

= −1
0
∴ ∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −1 (Convergent)
−∞

| P a g e 150
 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
Ex 4: Evaluate ∫−∞ , if it is possible
1+𝑥 2

Solution:
∞ 𝑑𝑥 0 𝑑𝑥 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2
=∫ 2
+ ∫ 2
−∞ 1 + 𝑥 −∞ 1 + 𝑥 0 1+𝑥 Recall:
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 tan−1(0) = 0
𝜋
0 0
tan−1(∞) →
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝐼1 = ∫ = lim ∫ 𝜋
−∞ 1 + 𝑥
2 𝑡→−∞ 𝑡 1 + 𝑥 2 tan−1(−∞) → −
2
= lim [tan−1 𝑥 ]0𝑡
𝑡→−∞

= lim (tan−1(0) − tan−1(𝑡))

𝑡→−∞

𝜋 𝜋
= 0 − (− ) =
2 2
Similarly,
∞ 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝐼2 = ∫ 2 = 𝑡→∞
lim ∫ 2
0 1+𝑥 0 1+𝑥

= lim (tan−1(𝑡) − tan−1(0))

𝑡→∞

𝜋
=
2
∞𝑑𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
∴∫ 2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = + = 𝜋 (Convergent)
−∞ 1 + 𝑥 2 2

Note that: If the first integral, 𝐼1, is divergent, then there is no need to
evaluate 𝐼2 and, in this case, the required integral will be divergent.

| P a g e 151
 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
Ex 5: For what value of 𝑃 does the integral ∫1 converges?
𝑥𝑃

Solution:
For 𝑃 ≠ 1 :
∞ 𝑡
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑃 = lim ∫ 𝑥 −𝑃 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1

𝑡
𝑥 1−𝑃
= lim [ ]
𝑡→∞ 1 − 𝑃
1

1
= lim (𝑡 1−𝑃 − 11−𝑃 )
1 − 𝑃 𝑡→∞
1 1
= lim (𝑡 1−𝑃 − 1) = (∞1−𝑃 − 1)
1 − 𝑃 𝑡→∞ 1−𝑃
Recall: ∞𝑎 → 0 for 𝑎 < 0 and ∞𝑎 → ∞ for 𝑎 > 0

For 𝑃 > 1 ⟹ 1−𝑃 < 0

∞ 𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
∴∫ = (∞1−𝑃 − 1) = (0 − 1) = −
1 𝑥𝑃 1−𝑃 1−𝑃 1−𝑃

(Convergent)
For 𝑃 < 1 ⟹ 1−𝑃 > 0
∞ 𝑑𝑥 1 1
∴∫ = (∞1−𝑃 − 1) = (∞ − 1) = ∞
1 𝑥𝑃 1−𝑃 1−𝑃

(Divergent)
For 𝑃 = 1:
∞ 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 1
∴ ∫ 𝑃 = lim ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim [ln 𝑥 ]1𝑡 = lim (ln 𝑡 − ln 1) = ∞
1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 1 𝑥 𝑡→∞ 𝑡→∞

(Divergent)

∞ 1
𝑑𝑥 convergent to when 𝑃 > 1
∴ ∫ 𝑃 is { 𝑃−1
1 𝑥 divergent when 𝑃 ≤ 1

| P a g e 152
Type II: Integrals with Infinite Discontinuity
(a) If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is continuous function on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏[ and
discontinuous at 𝑏, then:
𝑏 𝑡
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim− ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑡→𝑏 𝑎
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent if the limit exists, and divergent
otherwise.

𝑎 𝑏

(b) If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is continuous function on the interval ]𝑎, 𝑏] and

discontinuous at 𝑎, then:
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑡→𝑎 𝑡
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent if the limit exists, and divergent
otherwise.

𝑎 𝑏

(c) If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is continuous function on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] except at

the point 𝑐. Hence, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is discontinuous at 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
𝑡 𝑏
= lim− ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + lim+ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑡→𝑐 𝑎 𝑡→𝑐 𝑡
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 is convergent if both limits exist, and divergent
otherwise.

𝑎 𝑐 𝑏

| P a g e 153
Examples:
5 𝑑𝑥
Ex 6: Discuss the convergence of ∫2
√𝑥−2
Solution:
1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = has a discontinuity at 𝑥 = 2
√𝑥−2

5 𝑑𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥
∴∫ = lim+ ∫
2 √𝑥 − 2 𝑡→2 𝑡 √𝑥 − 2
5
= 2 lim+ [√𝑥 − 2]𝑡
𝑡→2

= 2 lim+ (√3 − √𝑡 − 2)
𝑡→2

= 2√3 (Convergent)

3 𝑑𝑥
Ex 7: Discuss the convergence of ∫0
𝑥−1
Solution:
1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = has a discontinuity at 𝑥 = 1
𝑥−1

3 1 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∴∫ = ∫ +∫
0 𝑥−1 0 𝑥−1 1 𝑥−1

= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
1
𝑑𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝐼1 = ∫ = lim− ∫
0 𝑥 − 1 𝑡→1 0 𝑥 − 1

= lim− [ln|𝑥 − 1|]𝑡0

𝑡→1

= lim− (ln|𝑡 − 1| − 0)
𝑡→1

= −∞ (divergent) Recall: ln 0 → −∞

No need to complete
3 𝑑𝑥
∴ ∫0 is divergent
𝑥−1

| P a g e 154
Note that: In the previous example, if you tried to solve the integral as
follows, you will get a wrong answer.
3 𝑑𝑥
∫0 = [ln|𝑥 − 1|]30 = ln 2 (Wrong answer)
𝑥−1

This answer is wrong because you ignored the discontinuity at 𝑥 = 1.

1
Ex 8: Evaluate ∫0 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , if it is possible

Solution: 𝑦 = ln 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥 has a discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0

Using integration by parts:

1
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 × 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
1 1
∴ ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑡→0 𝑡

= lim+ [𝑥 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 ]1𝑡
𝑡→0

= lim+ ((−1) − (𝑡 ln 𝑡 − 𝑡))

𝑡→0

= −1 − lim+ 𝑡 ln 𝑡 + 0 (0 × −∞)
𝑡→0

ln 𝑡 −∞
= −1 − lim+ ( )
𝑡→0 1 ∞
( )
𝑡
Applying L’ Hôpital’s rule:
1
( )
= −1 − lim+ 𝑡
𝑡→0 −1
( 2)
𝑡
= −1 + lim+ 𝑡 = −1
𝑡→0

1
∴ ∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −1 (Convergent)
0

| P a g e 155
 1 𝑑𝑥
Ex 9: Find the value of 𝑃 for which the integral ∫0 converges
𝑥𝑃
and evaluate it for those values of 𝑃
Solution:
1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = has a discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0
𝑥𝑃

For 𝑃 ≠ 1 :
1 1
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑃 = lim+ ∫ 𝑥 −𝑃 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥 𝑡→0 𝑡

1
𝑥 1−𝑃
= lim+ [ ]
𝑡→0 1 − 𝑃
𝑡

1 1
= lim+ (11−𝑃 − 𝑡 1−𝑃 ) = lim (1 − 𝑡 1−𝑃 )
1 − 𝑃 𝑡→0 1 − 𝑃 𝑡→0+
For 𝑃 > 1 ⟹ 1−𝑃 < 0
1 𝑑𝑥 1 1
∴∫ = lim+ (1 − 𝑡 1−𝑃 ) = (1 − ∞) = ∞
0 𝑥𝑃 1 − 𝑃 𝑡→0 1−𝑃

(Divergent)
For 𝑃 < 1 ⟹ 1−𝑃 > 0
1 𝑑𝑥 1 1 1
∴∫ = lim+ (1 − 𝑡 1−𝑃 ) = (1) =
0 𝑥𝑃 1 − 𝑃 𝑡→0 1−𝑃 1−𝑃

(Convergent)
For 𝑃 = 1:
1 𝑑𝑥 11
∴∫ = lim+ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = lim+ [ln 𝑥 ]1𝑡 = lim+ (ln 1 − ln 𝑡) = ∞
0 𝑥𝑃 𝑡→0 𝑡 𝑥 𝑡→0 𝑡→0

(Divergent)

1 1
𝑑𝑥 convergent to when 𝑃 < 1
∴ ∫ 𝑃 is { 1−𝑃
0 𝑥 divergent when 𝑃 ≥ 1

| P a g e 156
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, the concept of the definite integrals is extended to study
two cases. In the first case, the interval of integration is unbounded,
infinite limits of integration. This case is named “Improper integrals of
type I”. In the second case, the integrand has infinite discontinuity in the
integration interval. This case is named “Improper integrals of type II”.

| P a g e 157
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 158
 Part (2): Series
Chapter 10: Introduction to Series and Sigma
Notation
In this chapter, we study an introduction to the concept of a series and the
use of sigma notation in different forms.

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• make the proper manipulations with the sigma notation

• evaluate some known series such as the geometric series

Introduction
Consider the following series:

𝑆1 = 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 = 22 + 32 + 42 + 52

Using sigma “ 𝛴” notation:

5

∴ 𝑆1 = ∑ 𝑖 2
𝑖=2

where 𝑖 is the index (counter) and 𝑖 2 is the general term.

e.g.
6 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑆2 = + + + + = ∑ = ∑
2 3 4 5 6 𝑖 𝑖+2
𝑖=2 𝑖=0

𝑓 (𝑖) is the general term.

𝑛

∑ 𝑓 (𝑖 )
𝑖=𝑚
𝑖 is the index (counter).
Number of terms = 𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1

| P a g e 159
Rules of ∑
(1) Index is a dummy variable
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑓 (𝑖) = ∑ 𝑓( 𝑗)
𝑖=𝑚 𝑗=𝑚
(2) If 𝑎 is independent of the index 𝑖, then:
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑎 𝑓 (𝑖) = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓(𝑖)
𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
(3) Distribution over addition
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(𝑎 𝑓 (𝑖) + 𝑏 ℎ (𝑖)) = 𝑎 ∑ 𝑓 (𝑖) + 𝑏 ∑ ℎ(𝑖)

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚

Note that: No distribution over multiplication

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ (𝑓 (𝑖) ℎ(𝑖)) ≠ (∑ 𝑓 (𝑖)) (∑ ℎ(𝑖))

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚
(4) For the integer 𝑝 such that 𝑚 < 𝑝 < 𝑛
𝑛 𝑝 𝑛

∑ 𝑓 (𝑖) = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑖) + ∑ 𝑓 (𝑖)

𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑝+1
(5)
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝐶 = 𝐶 ∑ 1 = 𝐶 × ( 1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1) = 𝐶 × 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Number of terms = 𝑛

(6)
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝐶 = 𝐶 ∑ 1 = 𝐶 × ( 1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1) = 𝐶 × (𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1)
𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=𝑚

Number of terms = 𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1

| P a g e 160
 (7)
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
∑𝑖 =
2
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
∑ 𝑖2 =
6
𝑖=1
𝑛 2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
3
∑𝑖 = ( )
2
𝑖=1

We will use the following notations:

𝑛

∑ 𝑖 = 𝑓1(𝑛)
𝑖=1
𝑛

∑ 𝑖 2 = 𝑓2 (𝑛)
𝑖=1
𝑛

∑ 𝑖 3 = 𝑓3 (𝑛)
𝑖=1
⋮
𝑛

∑ 𝑖𝑘 = 𝑓𝑘 (𝑛)
𝑖=1

e. g.
6
(7)(6)
∑ 𝑖 = 𝑓1 (6) = = 21
(2)
𝑖=1

| P a g e 161
Examples:
Ex 1: Evaluate:
10

∑(2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 )
𝑖=1

Solution:
10 10 10

∑(2𝑖 + 𝑖 2 ) = 2 ∑ 𝑖 + ∑ 𝑖 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

= 2𝑓1 (10) + 𝑓2 (10)

10(11) 10(11)(21)
=2× +
2 6
= 495

Ex 2: Evaluate:
4

∑(𝑖 + 1)2
𝑖=1

Solution:
4 4

∑(𝑖 + 1)2 = ∑(𝑖 2 + 2𝑖 + 1)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

4 4 4
2
= ∑𝑖 + 2∑𝑖 + ∑1
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

= 𝑓2 (4) + 2𝑓1(4) + 4

4(5)(9) 4(5)
= +2× +4
6 2
= 54

| P a g e 162
Ex 3: Evaluate:
10

∑ 𝑖2
𝑖=5

Solution:
10 10 4

∑ 𝑖2 = ∑ 𝑖2 − ∑ 𝑖2
𝑖=5 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

= 𝑓2 (10) − 𝑓2 (4)

10(11)(21) 4(5)(9)
= −
6 6
= 355

Note that:
𝑏

∑ 𝑖 = 𝑓1(𝑏) − 𝑓1(𝑎 − 1)
𝑖=𝑎

∑ 𝑖 2 = 𝑓2(𝑏) − 𝑓2(𝑎 − 1)
𝑖=𝑎

∑ 𝑖 3 = 𝑓3(𝑏) − 𝑓3(𝑎 − 1)
𝑖=𝑎

| P a g e 163
Shifting the index (the counter):
Consider:
10

𝑆 = ∑(𝑖 − 2)2
𝑖=2

Let: 𝑘 = 𝑖 − 2

∴𝑖 = 𝑘+2
(𝑘+2)=10 8

∴𝑆= ∑ (𝑘 + 2 − 2)2 = ∑ 𝑘 2 = 𝑓2 (8)

(𝑘+2)=2 𝑘=0

𝑆 = ∑ ℎ(𝑖)
𝑖=𝑚

To make the start at 0 To make the start at 1

Let: 𝑘 = 𝑖 − 𝑚 Let: 𝑘 = 𝑖 − 𝑚 + 1

∴ 𝑖 = 𝑘+𝑚
∴ 𝑖 = 𝑘+𝑚−1

𝑛−𝑚 𝑛−𝑚+1
𝑆 = ∑ ℎ(𝑘 + 𝑚) 𝑆 = ∑ ℎ (𝑘 + 𝑚 − 1)
𝑘=0 𝑘=1

| P a g e 164
Ex 4: If:
10 𝑛

∑ 𝑖 2 = ∑ ℎ (𝑖)
𝑖=3 𝑖=1

, then find ℎ(𝑖) and 𝑛

Solution:
Let: 𝑖 = 𝑘 + 2
(𝑘+2)=10 𝑘=8

∴𝑆= ∑ (𝑘 + 2)2 = ∑(𝑘 + 2)2

(𝑘+2)=3 𝑘=1

Replacing 𝑘 by 𝑖
8 8

∴ 𝑆 = ∑(𝑖 + 2)2 = ∑(𝑖 2 + 4 𝑖 + 4)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1

∴ ℎ(𝑖) = (𝑖 2 + 4 𝑖 + 4) and 𝑛 = 8

Note that:
10

∑ 𝑖 2 = 𝑓2 (10) − 𝑓2 (2)
𝑖=3

8 The same result

∑(𝑖 2 + 4 𝑖 + 4) = 𝑓2(8) + 4𝑓1(8) + 4 × 8
𝑖=1

| P a g e 165
Ex 5: If:
30 𝑛

∑(𝑖 2 + 1) = ∑ ℎ(𝑖)
𝑖=4 𝑖=0

, then find ℎ(𝑖) and 𝑛

Solution:
Let: 𝑖 = 𝑘 + 4
(𝑘+4)=30 𝑘=26

∴𝑆= ∑ ((𝑘 + 4)2 + 1) = ∑ (𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 17)

(𝑘+4)=4 𝑘=0

Replacing 𝑘 by 𝑖
26

∴ 𝑆 = ∑(𝑖 2 + 8 𝑖 + 17)
𝑖=0

∴ ℎ(𝑖) = (𝑖 2 + 8 𝑖 + 17) and 𝑛 = 26

Geometric Series:
𝑛
1 − 𝑎𝑛+1
𝑖
∑𝑎 = ,𝑎 ≠ 1
1−𝑎
𝑖=0

𝑎 is called the base.

Number of terms = 𝑛 + 1

For 𝑎 = 1:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖 = ∑ 1𝑖 = ∑ 1 = 𝑛 + 1
𝑖=0 𝑖=0 𝑖=0

We will use the following notations:

𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑔(𝑎, 𝑛 + 1)
𝑖=0

| P a g e 166
e.g.
10
𝑖
1 − 511
∑ 5 = 𝑔(5, 11) =
1−5
𝑖=0

Note that:

To evaluate the series:

𝑛

∑ 𝑎𝑖
𝑖=𝑚

You may use:

𝑛 𝑛 𝑚−1

∑ 𝑎𝑖 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 − ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑔(𝑎, 𝑛 + 1) − 𝑔(𝑎, 𝑚)
𝑖=𝑚 𝑖=0 𝑖=0

Or use the shift:

Let: 𝑘 = 𝑖 − 𝑚
𝑛 𝑛−𝑚 𝑛−𝑚
𝑖 𝑘+𝑚 𝑚
∑𝑎 = ∑ 𝑎 =𝑎 ∑ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑔(𝑎, 𝑛 − 𝑚 + 1)
𝑖=𝑚 𝑘=0 𝑘=0

Ex 6: Evaluate:
10

∑ (5 + 2𝑖 + √4𝑖 )
𝑖=3

Solution:
10 10

∑ (5 + 2𝑖 + √4𝑖 ) = ∑ (5 + 2𝑖 + √22𝑖 )
𝑖=3 𝑖=3

10 10 10

= ∑ 5 + 2 ∑ 𝑖 + ∑ 2𝑖
𝑖=3 𝑖=3 𝑖=3

= 5(8) + 2(𝑓1(10) − 𝑓1(2)) + 𝑔(2, 11) − 𝑔(2, 3)

| P a g e 167
= 5(8) + 2(𝑓1(10) − 𝑓1(2)) + 23 𝑔(2, 8)

10(11) 2(3) 1 − 28
= 5(8) + 2 ( − )+ 8( )
2 2 1−2

= 2184

Ex 7: Evaluate:
10

∑ 3𝑖 , 𝑖 is even
𝑖=0
Solution:
10

Note that: ∑ 3𝑖 = 30 + 32 + 34 + ⋯ + 310

𝑖=0

Let: 𝑖 = 2𝑘
𝑖=10 2𝑘=10 5 5
𝑖 2𝑘 2 )𝑘 𝑘
1 − 96
∑3 = ∑ 3 = ∑ (3 = ∑ 9 = 𝑔(9, 6) =
1−9
𝑖=0 2𝑘=0 𝑘=0 𝑘=0

Ex 8: Evaluate:
11

∑ 3𝑖 , 𝑖 is odd
𝑖=1
Solution:
Let: 𝑖 = 2𝑘 + 1
𝑖=11 2𝑘+1=11 5 5

∑ 3𝑖 = ∑ 32𝑘+1 = 3 ∑ 32𝑘 = 3 ∑ 9𝑘 = 3 𝑔(9, 6)

𝑖=1 2𝑘+1=1 𝑘=0 𝑘=0

1 − 96
= 3( )
1−9

| P a g e 168
Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, the basics of the series and the sigma notation has been
studied. The main properties of the series have been illustrated and the
famous series have been shown, like the geometric series.

| P a g e 169
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 170
 Chapter 11: Infinite Series Tests

The objective of this chapter is to learn how to test whether a given

infinite series converges or diverges. Several tests are studied as tools to
determine the convergence or divergence of a series. These tests are
applied to find the interval of convergence of a given power series.

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• determine which test is suitable for the given problem

• use the adequate test to determine the divergence or convergence
of the given infinite series
• use the studied tests to find the interval of convergence of a given
power series.

Introduction
1 1 1 1
∶ , , , …. is called an infinite sequence.
𝑛 1 2 3

But
∞
1 1 1 1
∑ = + + +⋯
𝑛 1 2 3
𝑛=1

is called an infinite series. So, a series is the sum of a sequence.

For a series
1 𝑛
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 : 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒. 𝑔. ∑∞
𝑛=1 ( )
3
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑈𝑛 { ∞ : 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒. 𝑔. ∑𝑛=1 𝑛2
∞

𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 : 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒. 𝑔. ∑∞
𝑛=0(−1)
𝑛

The objective is to classify a given infinite series to convergent or

divergent.

| P a g e 171
Partial sums
An infinite series ∑∞ 𝑛=1 𝑈𝑛 can be viewed as a sum of an infinite set of
numbers {𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 , … }. If adding more terms brings the result closer to
some specific real number, then we say that this series converges to this
number.

For example, consider the series ∑∞

𝑛=1 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯. The following
table gives the result of adding the first 𝑘 terms of the series for an
increasing values of 𝑘.

𝑘 1 2 3 4 5 6 …
∑𝑘𝑛=1 𝑛 1 3 6 10 15 21 …
It is clear that adding more term increases the result without approaching
a specific real value. Hence, this series diverges.
1 𝑛 1
On the other hand, consider the geometric series ∑∞
𝑛=0 ( ) = 1 + +
2 2
1 2
( ) + ⋯. The following table gives the result of adding the first 𝑘 terms
2
of the series for an increasing values of 𝑘.

𝑘 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 …
∑𝑘𝑛=1 𝑛 0.5 0.75 0.875 0.9375 0.96875 0.99902 0.99999 …

As shown in this figure, it is

clear that adding more terms
seems to bring the sum closer to
1. Hence, we say that this series
seems to converge to 1.

Based on this discussion we formulate the convergence of an infinite

series based on the concept of partial sums. For the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑈𝑛 , define
the sequence of partials sums {𝑆𝑘 } as follows:

𝑆1 = 𝑈1

𝑆2 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2

𝑆3 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2 + 𝑈3

| P a g e 172
 …
𝑘

𝑆𝑘 = ∑ 𝑈𝑛
𝑛=1

So, 𝑆𝑘 gives the sum of the first 𝑘 terms of the series.

Definition
If the sequence of partial sums {𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 , … } has a limit ( lim 𝑆𝑘 = 𝐿),
𝑘→∞
then the series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑈𝑛 converges to 𝐿. Otherwise, the series diverges.

Ex 1: Use partial sums to the check the convergence of the geometric

series
∞

∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 1 + 𝑎 + 𝑎2 + ⋯.
𝑛=0

Solution:
𝑘−1
1 − 𝑎𝑘
𝑛
𝑆𝑘 = ∑ 𝑎 = , 𝑎≠1
1−𝑎
𝑛=0

𝑆𝑘 = 𝑘, 𝑎=1
1
Now, consider lim 𝑆𝑘 . It is clear that this limit exits and equals when
𝑘→∞ 1−𝑎
|𝑎| < 1. If |𝑎| ≥ 1, the limit does not exist.

Hence, the geometric series converges for |𝑎| < 1, and diverges for |𝑎| ≥
1
1. When it converges, it converges to .
1−𝑎

Ex 2: Use partial sums to the check the convergence of the series

∞

∑(−1)𝑛 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯.
𝑛=0

Solution:

| P a g e 173
 𝑘−1

𝑆𝑘 = ∑ (−1)𝑛 = 1, 𝑘 odd
𝑛=0
= 0, 𝑘 even
Now, consider lim 𝑆𝑘 . It is clear that this limit does not exist because the
𝑘→∞
sequence {𝑆1, 𝑆2 , … } continues to alternate between 1 and 0 forever and
does not approach a specific real value. Hence, this series diverges.

Ex 3: Use partial sums to the check the convergence of the series

∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ − = ( − ) + ( − ) + ⋯.
3𝑛 3𝑛+1 3 32 32 33
𝑛=1

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑆𝑘 = ( − 2 ) + ( 2 − 3 ) + ⋯ + ( 𝑘 − 𝑘+1) = ( − 𝑘+1)
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1
Now, consider lim 𝑆𝑘 . It is clear that this limit exits and equals . Hence,
𝑘→∞ 3
1
this series converges to .
3

Ex 4: Use partial sums to the check the convergence of the series

∞
1
∑ .
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1

1 1 1
(Hint: = − )
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛 𝑛+1

Solution:

The given series can be written as

∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
∑ − =( − ) + ( − ) + ( − )+ ⋯
𝑛 𝑛+1 1 2 2 3 3 4
𝑛=1

Hence,

| P a g e 174
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑆𝑘 = ( − )+ ( − )+⋯+( − ) = (1 − )
1 2 2 3 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
Now, consider lim 𝑆𝑘 . It is clear that this limit exits and equals 1. Hence,
𝑘→∞
this series converges to 1.

Note
Although partials sums are used to define the convergence of an infinite
series, it is hard to use this concept as a tool for convergence test because
it requires having a closed-form expression (rule) for 𝑆𝑘 which exists for
a very limited number of series. Hence, we are going to consider other
approaches for convergence testing.

1) General term test (G.T test)

∞

For a given series ∑ 𝑈𝑛 (Un is the general term)

𝑛=1

If lim 𝑈𝑛 ≠ 0 ⇒ ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑈𝑛 is a divergent series
𝑛→∞

1
e.g. ∑∞ 2 ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 , ∑𝑛=1 are divergent series
2

If lim 𝑈𝑛 = 0 ⇒ Test fail

𝑛→∞

1
e.g. ∑∞
𝑛=1 ??
𝑛

√𝑛4 +1
e.g. ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛2 +2

√𝑛4 +1 𝑛2
lim ~ = 1 ≠ 0 Divergent
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 +2 𝑛2

Note that the G.T test can never determine if a series is convergent.

Behavior of different functions when 𝒏 → ∞

| P a g e 175
Remember:
𝑓(𝑛)
For some algebraic rational function , then
𝑔(𝑛)

𝑓(𝑛)
lim =
𝑛→∞ 𝑔(𝑛)
±∞ 𝑖𝑓: 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚. > 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜.
{ 0 𝑖𝑓: 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚. < 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜.
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓.𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝑓: 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚. = 𝑑𝑒𝑔. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜.
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓.𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

In general for 𝑛 → ∞ :

Exponential 𝐹𝑛. >> Algebraic 𝐹𝑛. >> Logarithmic 𝐹𝑛.

The above rule applies only for functions that tend to ∞ when 𝑛 → ∞.

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥

𝑦 = ln 𝑥

1
For example, it does not apply for 𝑒 −𝑛 , 1, .
𝑛

Exponential (same base):

Higher power >> Lower power

e.g. 32𝑛 ≫ 3𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞

| P a g e 176
Exponential (same power with different base):

Higher base >> Lower base

e.g. 5𝑛 ≫ 3𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞

Algebraic:

Higher degree >> Lower degree

e.g. 𝑛3 ≫ 𝑛2 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞

Logarithmic

log(𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒) >> log(ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒)

e.g. log 2 𝑛 ≫ log 5 𝑛

Notes

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)
If 𝑓 (𝑛) ≫ 𝑔(𝑛) ⇒ lim = ∞ and lim = 0 , also:
𝑛→∞ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑛→∞ 𝑓(𝑥)

lim 𝑓 (𝑛) + 𝑔(𝑛) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑛)

𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

e.g. For 𝑛 → ∞ :

𝑒 𝑛 + 𝑛3 ≅ 𝑒 𝑛
3
𝑛5 + 𝑛 2 ≅ 𝑛5

𝑒 −𝑛 + 𝑛3 ≅ 𝑛3 (because 𝑒 −𝑛 does not tend to ∞)

1 + ln 𝑛 ≅ ln 𝑛 (because 1 does not tend to ∞)

𝑒𝑛
=∞
𝑛4

𝑒 3𝑛 + 𝑒 5𝑛 ≅ 𝑒 5𝑛 Higher power (same base)

3𝑛 + 5𝑛 ≅ 5𝑛 Higher base (same power)

| P a g e 177
Ex:
∞
1
∑ is called harmonic series
𝑛
𝑛=1

1
lim = 0 → Test fail
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

(It is proven later by some other test that it is divergent)

Ex:
∞
𝑒 𝑛 + 𝑛3
∑
𝑛=1
√𝑛2 + 1

𝑒 𝑛 +𝑛3 𝑒𝑛
lim = lim = ∞ ≠ 0 ⇒ Series is divergent
𝑛→∞ √𝑛2 +1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Ex:
∞
𝑒 −𝑛 + 3𝑛2
∑
𝑛=1
√3𝑛4 + 𝑛

lim 𝑒 −𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞

𝑒 −𝑛 +3𝑛2 3𝑛3 3
lim = lim = ≠ 0 ⇒Series is divergent
𝑛→∞ √3𝑛4 +𝑛 𝑛→∞ √3𝑛2 √3

Ex:
∞ 2
3𝑛 + 5𝑛
∑
3𝑛
𝑛=1

2 2 2
3𝑛 = 𝑒 (ln 3)𝑛 , 5𝑛 = 𝑒 (ln 5)𝑛 ⇒ 𝑒 (ln 3)𝑛 ≫ 𝑒 (𝑙𝑛 5)𝑛 (same base)
2
⇒ 3𝑛 ≫ 5𝑛
2 2
3𝑛 +5𝑛 3𝑛
lim = lim = ∞ ≠ 0 ⇒ Series is divergent
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3𝑛

| P a g e 178
Ex:
∞ 2
𝑒 𝑛 + 𝑛7 + 𝑒 −𝑛
∑
𝑛=1
√𝑒 𝑛2 + ln 𝑛
2
𝑒 𝑛 +𝑛7 +𝑒 −𝑛 𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛
lim = lim 1 = lim 𝑛2
= 0 → Test fail
𝑛→∞ √𝑒 𝑛2 +ln 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛→∞
(𝑒 𝑛 )2 𝑒2

Ex:
∞ −𝑛 2 1 𝑛
𝑒 +𝑛 +( )
∑ 2
4
√𝑛 + 1
𝑛=1

lim 𝑒 −𝑛 = 0
𝑛→∞

1 𝑛
lim ( ) = 0
𝑛→∞ 2

lim 𝑛2 → ∞
𝑛→∞

1 𝑛
𝑒 −𝑛 +𝑛2 +(2) 𝑛2
lim = lim = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ Series is divergent
𝑛→∞ √𝑛4 +1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2

Ex:
∞ 1
+ ln 𝑛 + 𝑛−3
∑ 𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1

1
lim ( ) = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

lim 𝑛−3 = 0
𝑛→∞
1
+ln 𝑛+𝑛−3 ln 𝑛
𝑛
lim = lim = 0 Test fail
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

| P a g e 179
 Rules
1) ∑(𝑈𝑛 + 𝑉𝑛 ) = ∑ 𝑈𝑛 + ∑ 𝑉𝑛
Conv. + Conv. = Conv.
Div. + Conv. = Div.
Div. + Div. = Div.
2) ∑(𝑈𝑛 − 𝑉𝑛 ) = ∑ 𝑈𝑛 − ∑ 𝑉𝑛
Conv. − Conv. = Conv.
Div. − Div. = ?? (Unknown)
Div. − Conv. = Div.
Conv. − Div. = Div.
3) ∑ 𝑈𝑛 and 𝑐 ∑ 𝑈𝑛 have the same type ⇒
multiplying by a constant doesn't change the type.

4) Changing the starting point of the counter does not change the
type.
∞
If ∑∞𝑛=1 𝑈𝑛 Conv. → ∑𝑛=𝑘 𝑈𝑛 Conv.

Also, ∑∞ ∞
𝑛=𝑚1 𝑈𝑛 is the same as ∑𝑛=𝑚2 𝑈𝑛

5) Replacing every 𝑛 by 𝑛 ± 𝑘 (𝑛 → 𝑛 ± 𝑘) doesn't change the type.

Ex:
√𝑒 𝑛 𝑛𝑛
∑∞ 2
𝑛=1 (𝑛 + ( 2 ))
𝑛2 ln 𝑛 𝑛𝑛

√𝑒 𝑛 𝑛𝑛
= ∑∞ 2
𝑛=1(𝑛 ) + ∑ 2 = div. + = div.
𝑛2 𝑙𝑛 𝑛 𝑛𝑛

lim 𝑛2 → ∞ Hard problem

𝑛→∞
div. by G.T test
No need to test the hard problem as long as its terms are positive.

| P a g e 180
Infinite Geometric Series ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑎
𝑛

1 − 𝑎𝑚+1 𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = { 1 − 𝑎 : 𝑎≠1
𝑛=0 𝑚+1 : 𝑎=1
For 𝑚 → ∞:

1 − 𝑎∞ 1−∞
= =∞ :𝑎>1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑣.
∞ 1−𝑎 1−𝑎
∞
∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 1 − 𝑎 = 1 − 0 = 1 : 𝑎 < 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣.
𝑛=0 1−𝑎 1−𝑎 1−𝑎
{ ∞+1= ∞ :𝑎=1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑖𝑣.
∞
𝑑𝑖𝑣. : 𝑎≥1
⇒ ∑ 𝑎𝑛 {
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. : 𝑎<1
𝑛=0

Ex:
∞
1
∑
2𝑛+1
𝑛=2
∞ ∞
1 1 1
∑ = ∑ 𝑛
2𝑛+1 2 2
𝑛=2 𝑛=2
∞
1 1 𝑛
= ∑ ( ) geom. series
2 2
𝑛=2

1
Base = < 1
2

Series is convergent

To find its value :

1 1 𝑛 1 1 𝑛 1 𝑛
∑∞ ∞ 1
𝑛=2 ( ) = (∑𝑛=0 ( ) − ∑𝑛=0 ( ) )
2 2 2 2 2

1 1 1
= ( 1 − (1 + ))
2 1−2 2

| P a g e 181
 1 1 1 1
= (2 − 1 − ) = ( ) =
2 2 2 4

Ex:
∞

∑ 9−𝑛+2 4𝑛+1
𝑛=0
∞

= 92 ∗ 41 ∑ 9−𝑛 4𝑛
𝑛=0

4 𝑛
= (4)(9) ∑∞
𝑛=1 ( ) 9

4 𝑛 4 0
= 4(9)2 [∑∞
𝑛=0 ( ) − ( ) ] 9 9

1 9 4
= 4 ∗ 92 [ 4 − 1]= 4 ∗ 92 [ − 1] = 4(92 ) ( )
1−9 5 5

Note

If 𝑎 < 1 :
∞
1
∑ 𝑎𝑛 =
1−𝑎
𝑛=0
∞
𝑎𝑘
𝑛
∑𝑎 = 𝑤ℎ𝑦 ?
1−𝑎
𝑛=𝑘

Proof
∞ ∞ 𝑘−1

∑ 𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 − ∑ 𝑎𝑛
𝑛=𝑘 𝑛=0 𝑛=0
Infinite geom. Finite geom.
series series
1 1−𝑎𝑘
= −
1−𝑎 1−𝑎

𝑎𝑘
=
1−𝑎

| P a g e 182
2) Integral Test
∞
Both ∑ 𝑈𝑛 and ∫1 𝑈𝑛 𝑑𝑛 are of the same type

Ex:
∞
tan−1 𝑛
∑
1 + 𝑛2
𝑛=1

∞ tan−1 𝑛 ∞
∫1 𝑑𝑛 = ∫1 tan−1 𝑛 𝑑(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1𝑛)
1+𝑛2

1
= [(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛)2 ] ∞
1
2

1 𝜋 2 𝜋 2
= [( ) − ( ) ] ≠ ∞
2 2 4

Thus, the series is convergent.

Ex:
∞
1
∑
𝑛 ln 𝑛
𝑛=2

∞ 1 ∞ 1
∫2 𝑑𝑛 = ∫2 𝑑(ln 𝑛)
𝑛 ln 𝑛 ln 𝑛

= [ln|ln 𝑛|]∞
2

= ∞ − ln|ln 2| = ∞

Series is divergent
1
P-series ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛𝑃
∞
1 𝑑𝑖𝑣. : 𝑝≤1
∑ → {
𝑛𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. : 𝑝>1
𝑛=1

Proof by integral test

∞ 1 𝑛−𝑃+1
∫1 𝑃
𝑑𝑛 = [( )] ∞
1
𝑛 −𝑃+1

| P a g e 183
 1
= [𝑛1−𝑃 ] ∞
1
1−𝑝

If 𝑃 > 1
1
= [ ∞−𝑣𝑒 − 1−𝑣𝑒 ] = number (conv.)
−𝑣𝑒

If 𝑃 ≤ 1
1
= [ ∞+𝑣𝑒 − 1+𝑣𝑒 ] =∞ (div.)
+𝑣𝑒

Examples:
1 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 , ∑∞
𝑛=1 ….. are conv.
𝑛2 𝑛3

1 1
But ∑∞
𝑛=1 1 , ∑∞
𝑛=1 .. are div.
𝑛2 𝑛1/3

3) Limit Comparison Test

For the two series ∑ 𝑈𝑛 , ∑ 𝑉𝑛
𝑈𝑛
If lim = 𝑐 where 𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑐 ≠ ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑉𝑛

∴ ∑ 𝑈𝑛 , ∑ 𝑉𝑛 are of the same type

𝑈𝑛
Else, if lim =0 𝑜𝑟 ∞ (test fail)
𝑛→∞ 𝑉𝑛

Ex:
∞
𝑛2 + 2
∑ 4
𝑛 +𝑛
𝑛=1

𝑛2 +2 𝑛2 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 ≅ ∑ ≅ ∑∞
𝑛=1 Convergent
𝑛4 +𝑛 𝑛4 𝑛2

𝑛2 +2
( ) (𝑛4 +2𝑛2 )
𝑛4 +𝑛
lim 1 = lim = 1 ≠ 0 ,≠ ∞
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛4 +𝑛
𝑛2

𝑛2 +2 1
∴ ∑∞
𝑛=1 the same type as ∑∞
𝑛=1
𝑛4 +𝑛 𝑛2

If you try to use general term test

| P a g e 184
 (𝑛4 +2𝑛2 ) 1
lim ≅ lim = 0 Test fail
𝑛→∞ 𝑛4 +𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2

Note

For any rational algebraic function, limit comparison test is preferred.

Ex:
∞
1
∑
3𝑛 − 𝑛
𝑛=1

1 1 1 𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=1 compared with ∑∞
𝑛=1 =∑∞
𝑛=1 ( ) geom. with base <1
3𝑛 −𝑛 3𝑛 3
(conv.)
1
(3𝑛−𝑛) 3𝑛 3𝑛
lim 1 = lim ( ) ≅ lim = 1 ≠ 0 ,≠ ∞
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 −𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3𝑛

The series converges too.

Ex:
∞
ln 𝑛
∑
𝑛3
𝑛=1

ln 𝑛 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 compared with ∑∞
𝑛=1 conv.
𝑛3 𝑛3

ln 𝑛
𝑛3 n3 ∗ln 𝑛
lim 1 = lim = ∞ (test fail)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛3
𝑛3

This problem is solved later by comparison test

Ex:
∞
𝑒 −𝑛 + 𝑛2 + 1
∑
𝑛4 − 1
𝑛=2

𝑒 −𝑛 +𝑛2 +1 1
∑∞
𝑛=2 compared with ∑∞
𝑛=2 conv.
𝑛4 −1 𝑛2

(𝑒 −𝑛 +𝑛2 +1)𝑛2 𝑛4
lim ≅ lim = 1 (conv.)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛4 −1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛4

| P a g e 185
4) Comparison test
For two series ∑ 𝑈𝑛 , ∑ 𝑉𝑛 if for some large 𝑁 we know that 𝑈𝑛 > 𝑉𝑛 for
all 𝑛 > 𝑁

Then if ∑ 𝑈𝑛 conv. → ∑ 𝑉𝑛 conv.

If ∑ 𝑉𝑛 div. → ∑ 𝑈𝑛 div.

In other words, if the greater series converges, then smaller series

converges too.

If the smaller series diverges, then greater series diverges too.

We will use the following series in comparison:

geometric series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 : If 𝑎 < 1 → conv. , 𝑎 ≥ 1 → div.

1
p-series ∑ : If 𝑝 ≤ 1 → div. , 𝑝 > 1 → conv.
𝑛𝑝

e.g.

1 1
∑ =∑ 1 ⇒ div.
√𝑛 𝑛2

1
∑ ⇒ div.
𝑛

1
∑ ⇒ conv.
𝑛2

∑ 𝑛5 ⇒ div. (by general term test)

1 1
∑ ⇒ conv. (geom. series with base = )
3𝑛 3

1 𝑛
∑ 𝑒 −𝑛 = ∑ ( ) ⇒ conv.
𝑒

Ex:
ln 𝑛
∑
𝑛
1
It is known that ∑ diverges (proved by integral test)
𝑛

| P a g e 186
 ln 𝑛 1 ln 𝑛
Then, because > for large 𝑛 ⇒ ∑ is divergent.
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

Ex:
∞
1
∑
3𝑛 + 𝑛
𝑛=1

1 1 1 𝑛
< ∑∞
𝑛=1 ( ) conv
3𝑛 +𝑛 3𝑛 3

1 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 compared to ∑∞
𝑛=1
3𝑛 +𝑛 3𝑛

1
∴ ∑∞
𝑛=1 converges too.
3𝑛 +𝑛

Ex:
∞
𝑛
∑
𝑛2 − cos 2 𝑛
𝑛=1

𝑛 𝑛 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 compared to ∑∞
𝑛=1 = ∑∞
𝑛=1 div.
𝑛2 −cos2 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
>
𝑛2 −cos2 𝑛 𝑛2
𝑛
∑∞
𝑛=1 div.
𝑛2 −cos2 𝑛
Note: The last problem can be solved by limit comparison test too.

Ex:
∞
ln 𝑛
∑
𝑛3
𝑛=1

1
If we try to compare with ∑ conv.
𝑛3

ln 𝑛 1
> (test fail)
𝑛3 𝑛3

𝑛 1
Compare it with ∑∞
𝑛=1 = ∑∞
𝑛=1 conv.
𝑛3 𝑛2

| P a g e 187
 ln 𝑛 𝑛
< conv.
𝑛3 𝑛3
ln 𝑛
Then, ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛3 converges.
ln 𝑛
(Exercise: Check convergence of ∑∞
𝑛=1 )
𝑛2

Ex:
∞
𝑛2
∑ 𝑛
𝑒
𝑛=1

𝑛2 𝑛2 1
∑∞
𝑛=1 compare it with ∑∞
𝑛=1 = ∑ conv.
𝑒𝑛 𝑛10 𝑛8

𝑛2 𝑛2
< (conv.)
𝑒𝑛 𝑛10

𝑛2
Then, ∑∞
𝑛=1 converges.
𝑒𝑛

Note that the series could have been compared to the series of
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2
, , , ….
𝑛4 𝑛5 𝑛6

5) Ratio Test
>1 → 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣.
𝑈𝑛+1
For ∑ 𝑈𝑛 if lim {=1 → 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
<1 → 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣.

Ex: ∑ 𝑛2 𝑒 −𝑛
𝑛2 (𝑛+1)2
𝑈𝑛 = ⇒ 𝑈𝑛+1 =
𝑒𝑛 𝑒 𝑛+1

𝑈𝑛+1 (𝑛+1)2 𝑒 𝑛 (𝑛+1)2 𝑒 𝑛

𝑙𝑖𝑚 = lim = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑒 𝑛+1 𝑛2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 𝑒 𝑛+1

1
= <1
𝑒

Then, the series is convergent.

𝑛2
Note: the same problem can be solved by comparison test with .
𝑛5

Ex:
| P a g e 188
 ln 𝑛
∑
𝑛3
(ln(𝑛+1))∗𝑛3 ln(𝑛+1) 𝑛3
lim = lim
𝑛→∞ (𝑛+1)3 ∗ln 𝑛 𝑛→∞ ln 𝑛 (𝑛+1)3

Using L'Hopital
1
(𝑛+1) 𝑛
lim 1 = lim = 1 (Test fail)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1

𝑛
Note: This problem can be solved by comparison test using
𝑛3

Ex:
3𝑛 (2𝑛 + 1)
∑
22𝑛+1
3𝑛+1 (2(𝑛+1)+1) 22𝑛+1
lim
𝑛→∞ 22(𝑛+1)+1 3𝑛 (2𝑛+1)

3𝑛+1 2𝑛+3 22𝑛+1

lim ( ) (2𝑛+1)
𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 22𝑛+3

1 3
=3∗1∗ = <1
4 4

Then, the series is convergent.

Ex:
𝑛!
∑
5𝑛
(𝑛+1)! 5𝑛
lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 5𝑛+1 𝑛!

(𝑛+1)! 5𝑛 1
= lim ( )∗ = lim (𝑛 + 1) ∗ = ∞ > 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛! 5𝑛+1 𝑛→∞ 5

Then, the series is divergent.

Ex:
𝑛2
∑
(2𝑛 − 1)!

| P a g e 189
 (𝑛+1)2 (2𝑛−1)!
lim ((2(𝑛+1)−1)!)
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2

(𝑛+1)2 (2𝑛−1)!
= lim ( )∗
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 (2𝑛+1)!

1
= lim(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛)
=0<1
𝑛→∞

Then, the series is convergent.

6) Root Test
>1 → 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣.
For ∑(𝑎𝑛 )𝑛 , if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 { = 1 → 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙
𝑛→∞
<1 → 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣.
Hint: Suitable when series on the form of ∑ 𝑉𝑛 where 𝑉𝑛 = (𝑈𝑛 )𝑛

Note that 𝑈𝑛 = 𝑛√𝑉𝑛 , and this is the reason it is called the root test.

Ex:
1
∑
(ln 𝑛)𝑛
1 1 𝑛
∑ = ∑( )
(ln 𝑛)𝑛 ln 𝑛

1
lim ( )=0<1
𝑛→∞ ln 𝑛
Then, the series is convergent.

Ex:
𝑛𝑛
∑
(2𝑛 + 1)𝑛
𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
∑ =∑ ( )
(2𝑛+1)𝑛 2𝑛+1

𝑛 1
lim ( )= <1
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛+1 2

| P a g e 190
Then, the series is convergent.

Ex:
𝑛𝑛
∑
34𝑛+5
𝑛𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑛
∑ 4𝑛+5
= 5
∑ ( 4)
3 3 3

By root test:
𝑛
lim ( 4 ) = ∞ > 1
𝑛→∞ 3
Then, the series is divergent.

Ex:
(𝑛 − 1)𝑛−1
∑
(2𝑛 − 1)𝑛−1
we may replace every 𝑛 by 𝑛 + 1 (𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1) as this operation does not
(𝑛−1)𝑛−1
change the type of the series, hence, ∑ (2𝑛−1)𝑛−1 is the same type as
𝑛𝑛
∑ which was solved in a previous example by the root test and
(2𝑛+1)𝑛
shown to be convergent.
(𝑛−1)𝑛−1
Thus, the series ∑ (2𝑛−1)𝑛−1 is convergent too.

7) Alternating Series Test:

An alternating series is a series on the form ∑(−1)𝑛 𝑏𝑛
≠0 → 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣.
If lim 𝑏𝑛 {
𝑛→∞
=0 → 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣.
Provided that 𝑏𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 for all large 𝑛.

| P a g e 191
Our study is limited for the cases for which the condition 𝑏𝑛+1 ≤ 𝑏𝑛 for
all large 𝑛 is satisfied.

Ex:
1 𝑛−1 (√𝑛)
∑ (− )
3 𝑛+4
1 𝑛−1 (√𝑛) 1 −1 1 𝑛 (√𝑛)
∑ (− ) = (− ) ∑ (− )
3 𝑛+4 3 3 𝑛+4

1 −1 1 𝑛 (√𝑛)
= (− ) ∑(−1)𝑛 ( )
3 3 𝑛+4
Alternating series test:
1 𝑛 (√𝑛)
lim ( ) =0∗0=0
𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛+4
Then, the series is convergent.

Ex:
1 1 1
1− + − +⋯
2 3 4
1 1
∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
= − ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛

Alternating series test:

1
lim ( ) = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
Then, the series is convergent.

Note
1 1
∑ is divergent, but ∑(−1)𝑛 is convergent.
𝑛 𝑛

Ex:
𝑛2
∑(−1 )𝑛
𝑛2 + 1
Alternating series test:
𝑛2
lim =1 ≠0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 +1
Then, the series is divergent.

| P a g e 192
Ex:
cos 𝑛𝜋
∑
√𝑛
but, cos 𝑛𝜋 = (−1)𝑛
cos 𝑛𝜋 (−1)𝑛
∑ =∑
√𝑛 √𝑛
Alternating series test:
1
lim ( ) = 0
𝑛→∞ √𝑛
Then, the series is convergent.

Finding the Interval of Convergence (IC) of Infinite Power

Series:
A power series is a series in the form ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 𝑜𝑟 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 . The
interval of convergence (IC) is the interval of all 𝑥 for which the series is
convergent.

To find I.C of a power series, we use the ratio test. The values of 𝑥 that
𝑈𝑛+1
satisfy lim | | < 1 belong to the IC, and the values of 𝑥 that satisfy
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1
lim | | > 1 are outside the IC. However, since the ratio test fails
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
𝑈𝑛+1
when the limit is 1, the values of 𝑥 that satisfy lim | | = 1 need to be
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
studied individually.
(−2)𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
Ex: Find the IC of the power series ∑∞
𝑛=2 √𝑛−1

𝑈𝑛+1
First, we find values of 𝑥 such that lim | | < 1. Hence, we solve the
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛
following inequality for 𝑥

(−2)𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 √𝑛−1

lim | |<1
𝑛→∞ √𝑛+1−1 (−2)𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

| P a g e 193
 (−2)𝑛+1 (𝑥)𝑛+1 √𝑛−1
lim | (−2)𝑛
|| (𝑥)𝑛
|| |<1
𝑛→∞ √𝑛

1
2|𝑥| < 1 , |𝑥| <
2

1 1
Hence, for − < 𝑥 < , the series is convergent.
2 2

1 1 1
However, we need to study the cases for which |𝑥| = (𝑥 = ,𝑥 = − )
2 2 2
with a test other than the ratio test.
1
For 𝑥 = − :
2

1 𝑛
(−2)𝑛 (− ) 1
2
The series becomes: ∑ =∑
√𝑛−1 √𝑛−1

1 1
Compare with ∑ =∑ 1 by limit comparison
√𝑛 𝑛2
1
( ) 1 1
√𝑛−1
lim 1 = 1 ≠ 0 , hence, ∑ is the same type as which is
𝑛→∞ √𝑛−1 √𝑛
√𝑛

divergent.
1
Then, 𝑥 = − ∉ IC
2

1
For 𝑥 = :
2

1 𝑛
(−2)𝑛 ( ) (−1)𝑛
2
The series becomes ∑ =∑
√𝑛−1 √𝑛−1
By alternating series test:
1
lim =0
𝑛→∞ √𝑛−1
The series is convergent.
1
Then, 𝑥 = ∈ 𝐼. 𝐶
2

1 1
𝐼. 𝐶 =] − , ]
2 2

𝑥3 𝑥5
Ex: Find IC of Maclurin expansion of sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3! + 5! … … ..
𝑥 2𝑛+1
sin 𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1) (2𝑛+1)!

| P a g e 194
 𝑈𝑛+1
lim | |<1
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛

(−1)𝑛+1 𝑥 2(𝑛+1)+1 (2𝑛+1)!

= lim | (2(𝑛+1)+1)! (−1)𝑛 𝑥 2𝑛+1
|<1
𝑛→∞

(−1)𝑛+1 (𝑥)2𝑛+3 (2𝑛+1)!

= lim | (−1)𝑛
| |(𝑥)2𝑛+1 | |(2𝑛+3)! | < 1
𝑛→∞

1
= lim 𝑥 2 |(2𝑛+3)(2𝑛+1) | < 1
𝑛→∞

= 𝑥2 ∗ 0 < 1

which is always true and for all values of 𝑥 the series is convergent,
hence, 𝐼𝐶 = ℝ.

Summary of Chapter
In this chapter we studied how to test the divergence or convergence of
some forms of infinite series. The general term test, integral test, limit
comparison test, comparison test, ratio test, root test and alternating series
test were all studied. The indicated tests were applied to find the interval
of convergence of infinite power series.

| P a g e 195
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 196
 Chapter 12: Maclaurin and Taylor Series

In this chapter, we study the Taylor and Maclaurin expansions. First, we

prove the formula of Taylor and Maclaurin expansions. Then, we give
examples to learn how to obtain Taylor and Maclaurin expansions for
different functions. We study also famous functions expansions and use
them to obtain other functions expansions. Taylor and Maclaurin
expansions are infinite power series which is reduced, upon truncation,
into a polynomial. Hence, these expansions provide a way to approximate
a function with a polynomial. Dealing with problems such as finding the
roots of the equation 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0, or evaluate the indefinite integral
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, is straightforward when 𝑓(𝑥) is a polynomial. Hence, a basic
idea in approximating the solution of involved problems is replacing 𝑓(𝑥)
with a polynomial.

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• Find the Taylor and Maclaurin expansions for different functions.

• Know well-known Maclaurin expansions for basic elementary
functions.
• Use Taylor expansion to give an approximation of some function’s
values.
• Apply Taylor expansion of some given function to facilitate
solving involved problems.

Introduction
e.g: how to expand 𝑥 2 − 1 as a series of an ascending power of
(𝑥 − 1)?

𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

= (𝑥 − 1)((𝑥 − 1) + 2)

= (𝑥 − 1)2 + 2(𝑥 − 1)

| P a g e 197
How to expand the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) as a series of an ascending power of
(𝑥 − 𝑎)?

proof
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐0 + 𝑐1 (𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑐2(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑐3(𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + 𝑐4 (𝑥 − 𝑎)4 +
⋯ (1)

At 𝑥 = 𝑎 → 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑐0 (2)

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 3𝑐3(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 4𝑐4(𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯

At 𝑥 = 𝑎 → 𝑓′(𝑎) = 𝑐1 (3)

𝑓′′(𝑥 ) = 2 × 1𝑐2 + 3 × 2𝑐3(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 4 × 3𝑐4(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + ⋯

𝑓′′(𝑎)
At 𝑥 = 𝑎 → 𝑓′′(𝑎) = 2! 𝑐2 → 𝑐2 = (4)
2!

𝑓′′′(𝑥 ) = 3 × 2 × 1𝑐3 + 4 × 3 × 2𝑐4(𝑥 − 𝑎) + ⋯

𝑓′′′(𝑎)
At 𝑥 = 𝑎 → 𝑓′′′(𝑎) = 3! 𝑐3 → 𝑐3 = (5)
3!
.
.
.
Substituting from equations (2),(3),(4),(5) into equation (1)
𝑓′′(𝑎) 𝑓′′′(𝑎)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎 ) 2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯
2! 3!
(6)

Equation (6) is called Taylor expansion for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) about 𝑥 =
𝑎.

If we substitute by 𝑎 = 0 then the equation (6) will be converted to the

form
𝑓′′(0) 𝑓′′′(0)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓′(𝑎)𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
2! 3!

This new form is called Maclaurin expansion for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ).

| P a g e 198
 𝜋
Ex 1: Expand 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 about 𝑥 = 6 up to the third order term then use the
expansion to evaluate an approximate value for 𝑠𝑖𝑛32°

Solution:
𝜋
𝑎=
6
𝜋 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 → 𝑓( ) =
6 2

𝜋 √3
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 → 𝑓′ ( ) =
6 2
𝜋 1
𝑓′′(𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 → 𝑓′′ ( ) = −
6 2
1
1 √3 𝜋 − 𝜋 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = + (𝑥 − ) + 2 (𝑥 − ) + ⋯
2 2 6 2! 6
to evaluate an approximate value for 𝑠𝑖𝑛32°
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 32° → 𝑥 = 30° + 2° → 𝑥 = +2× →𝑥= +
6 180 6 90

°
𝜋 𝜋 1 √3 𝜋 −1 𝜋 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛32 = sin ( + ) = + ( )+ ( ) +⋯
6 90 2 2 90 4 90

Ex 2: Find the first three terms of Maclaurin expansion for the function
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 then use the result to get Maclaurin expansion for 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
and 𝑐𝑜𝑠√𝑥

Solution:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 → 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 → 𝑓′(0) = 1

𝑓′′(𝑥 ) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 → 𝑓′′(0) = 0

𝑓′′′(𝑥 ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 → 𝑓′′′(0) = −1

| P a g e 199
𝑓 (4) (𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 → 𝑓 (4) (0) = 0

𝑓 (5) (𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 → 𝑓 (5) (0) = 1

1 3 1 5
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
3! 5!
If we differentiate both sides of the previous equation with respect to 𝑥
we get
3 2 5 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
3! 5!
1 2 1 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 4!
If we replace 𝑥 by √𝑥 in the previous equation, we obtain
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠√𝑥 = 1 − (√𝑥)2 + (√𝑥)4 + ⋯
2! 4!
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠√𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
2! 4!

Ex 3: Find an approximate value for ln (1.1)

Solution:
First, we will expand 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥 about 𝑥 = 1

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥 → 𝑓 (1) = 0
1
𝑓′(𝑥 ) = → 𝑓′(1) = 1
𝑥
1
𝑓′′(𝑥 ) = − → 𝑓′′(1) = −1
𝑥2
2
𝑓′′′(𝑥 ) = → 𝑓′′′(1) = 2
𝑥3
1 2
ln 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
2! 3!

| P a g e 200
 1 1
ln 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 1) − (𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑥 − 1)3 + ⋯
2 3
If we substitute by 𝑥 = 1.1 we get
1 1
ln(1.1) = (0.1) − (0.1)2 + (0.1)3 + ⋯
2 3
Note: at 𝑥 = 1.1 → (𝑥 − 1) = 0.1 << 1, so the higher terms, e.g. (0.1)4 ,
(0.1)5 , .. , can be neglected.

Maclaurin expansion for elementary functions

1 2 1 3 1 4
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3! 4!
1 3 1 5 1 7
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 +⋯
3! 5! 7!
1 2 1 4 1 6
cos 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 +⋯
2! 4! 6!
1 3 1 5 1 7
sinh 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
3! 5! 7!
1 2 1 4 1 6
cosh 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 4! 6!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 3
(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
Notes

- The last series is the binomial theorem for any real 𝑛. Interval of
convergence of this series is |𝑥| < 1.
- All other series in the above list converges for all 𝑥.
- To get an approximate value using any of the above series, we
should use substitute for 𝑥 with values that lie in the interval of
convergence.

| P a g e 201
Deriving the interval of convergence using the ratio test

(1) Consider the expansion of sin 𝑥:

∞
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑛−1
𝑥 2𝑛−1
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − ⋯ = ∑ (−1)
3! 5! (2𝑛 − 1)!
𝑛=1

Applying the ratio test gives,

𝑈𝑛+1 𝑥 2(𝑛+1)−1 1 (2𝑛−1)!
lim | | = lim |(−1)𝑛 (2(𝑛+1)−1)! (−1)𝑛−1 |
𝑛→∞ 𝑈𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑥 2𝑛−1

(2𝑛−1)! 1
= lim |(2𝑛+1)! 𝑥 2 | = lim |(2𝑛+1)(2𝑛) 𝑥 2 | = 0 < 1,
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
for all 𝑥.

Hence, the series converges for all 𝑥.

(2) Consider the expansion of (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 :

(𝑛)(𝑛−1)
(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥2 + ⋯ = 1 +
2!
(𝑛)(𝑛−1)…(𝑛−𝑟+1)
∑∞
𝑟=1 𝑥𝑟
𝑟!

Applying the ratio test gives,

𝑈𝑟+1
lim | |=
𝑟→∞ 𝑈𝑟

(𝑛)(𝑛−1)…(𝑛−(𝑟+1)+1) 𝑟! 1
lim | 𝑥 𝑟+1 (𝑛)(𝑛−1)…(𝑛−𝑟+1) |=
𝑟→∞ (𝑟+1)! 𝑥𝑟

(𝑛−𝑟) (𝑛−𝑟)
lim | 𝑥 | = |𝑥| lim | (𝑟+1) | = |𝑥| × 1 = |𝑥| < 1.
𝑟→∞ (𝑟+1) 𝑟→∞

Hence, the series converges for |𝑥| < 1.

Ex 4: Prove that
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 3
(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
, then deduce Maclaurin expansion of up to third order term.
√1+𝑥

| P a g e 202
Solution:
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 → 𝑓 (0) = 1

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛−1 → 𝑓′(0) = 𝑛

𝑓′′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛−2 → 𝑓′′(0) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

𝑓′′′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛−3 → 𝑓′′′(0) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)

𝑛(𝑛−1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)𝑥 3
Then, (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
To deduce Maclaurin expansion of up to third order term
√1+𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (1 + 𝑥)−1/2
√1+𝑥

Using Maclaurin expansion for elementary functions

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 )−2
1 3 1 3 5
1 2 1 (− ) (− ) (− ) (− ) (− )
= (1 − 𝑥 )(1 − 𝑥 + 2 2 𝑥2 + 2 2 2 𝑥3 + ⋯ )
2! 2 2! 3!
1 1 3 5
= (1 − 𝑥 2 )(1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
2 2 8 16
1 3 5 1 1
= (1) (1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (− 𝑥 2 ) (1 − 𝑥 + ⋯ )
2 8 16 2 2
1 3 5 1 1
= (1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (− 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
2 8 16 2 4
1 3 5 1 1
= (1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (− 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
2 8 16 2 4
1 3 1 5 1 3
= (1 − 𝑥 + ( − )𝑥 2 + (− + )𝑥 + ⋯ )
2 8 2 16 4
1 1 1
= (1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ )
2 8 16

| P a g e 203
Ex 5: Evaluate the following limit using Maclaurin expansion for
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥−1
elementary functions: lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥2

Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1
lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥2
1 2 1 4
(1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − ⋯)−1
= lim ( 2! 4! )
𝑥→0 𝑥2

1 2 1 4
−
𝑥 + 𝑥 −⋯
= lim ( 2! 4! )
𝑥→0 𝑥2

1 1 2
= lim (− + 𝑥 − ⋯)
𝑥→0 2! 4!
1
=−
2
2 𝑒 −𝑥
Ex 6: Estimate the following definite integral ∫1 𝑑𝑥 ,using the first
𝑥
3 terms of Maclaurin expansion 𝑒𝑥 .

Solution:
1
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + ⋯, then
2!

1
𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − ⋯
2
1
2 𝑒 −𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2) 2 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≈ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( − 1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 2
2
𝑥2 22 12
= (𝑙𝑛𝑥 − 𝑥 + ) = (𝑙𝑛2 − 2 + ) − (𝑙𝑛1 − 1 + )
4 1 4 4

1 1
= 𝑙𝑛2 − 2 + 1 − 0 + 1 − = 𝑙𝑛2 − = 0.4431
4 4

| P a g e 204
Ex 7: Using Maclaurin expansion for elementary functions, find
Maclaurin expansion for

(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
(ii) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥

Solution:
1
(i) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)
2

1 1 1
= (1 − (1 − (2𝑥 )2 + (2𝑥 )4 − ⋯ ))
2 2! 4!
1 1 1
= ( (2𝑥 )2 − (2𝑥 )4 + ⋯ )
2 2! 4!
1
(ii) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛4𝑥
2
1 1 1
= (4𝑥 − (4𝑥)3 + (4𝑥)5 − ⋯ )
2 3! 5!

Note: to find Maclaurin expansion for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥 we

need to use product to sum rules for trigonometric functions.

Ex 8: Find Maclaurin expansion for sin 2𝑥 cos 4𝑥.

Solution:
To facilitate obtaining the required expansion, we start by converting the
given product into a summation. Recall that,
1
cos 𝑥 . cos 𝑦 = (cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) + cos(𝑥 + 𝑦))
2
1
sin 𝑥 . sin 𝑦 = (cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) − cos(𝑥 + 𝑦))
2
1
sin 𝑥 . cos 𝑦 = (sin(𝑥 − 𝑦) + sin(𝑥 + 𝑦))
2
Using the third identity, then

| P a g e 205
 1 1
sin 2𝑥 cos 4𝑥 = (sin(−2𝑥 ) + sin(6𝑥 )) = (− sin(2𝑥 ) + sin(6𝑥 ))
2 2

By expanding both sin(2𝑥) , sin (6𝑥), and then collecting similar terms
we get the required results. We proceed as follows. First,
(2𝑥)3 (2𝑥)5 4 4
sin 2𝑥 = (2𝑥 ) − + − ⋯ = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥5 + ⋯
3! 5! 3 15

(6𝑥)3 (6𝑥)5 324

sin 6𝑥 = (6𝑥 ) − + − ⋯ = 6𝑥 − 36𝑥 3 + 𝑥5 + ⋯
3! 5! 5

Then,
1
sin 2𝑥 cos 4𝑥 = (− sin(2𝑥 ) + sin(6𝑥 ))
2

1 4 4 324
= (− (2𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 + ⋯ ) + (6𝑥 − 36𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 + ⋯ ))
2 3 15 5

1 104 976
= (4𝑥 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + ⋯ )
2 3 15

1
Ex 9: Find Maclaurin expansion for √1+𝑥, and hence find the expansion
1 1
of and . Determine also the convergence intervals.
√1−𝑥 √4+𝑥

Solution:
1 1
1 (2)(−2)
1 1 1 1
- = (1 + 𝑥 ) = 1 + 𝑥 +
2 𝑥2 + ⋯ = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + ⋯
√1+𝑥 2 2! 2 8
This series converges for |𝑥| < 1.
1 1 1 1 1
- = 1 + (−𝑥 ) − (−𝑥 )2 + ⋯ = 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 + ⋯
√1−𝑥 2 8 2 8
This series converges for |−𝑥| < 1, or |𝑥| < 1.
1
1 1
𝑥 2 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 2
- = (4 + 𝑥 ) = 2 (1 + ) = 2(1 + ( ) − ( ) + ⋯
2
√4+𝑥 2 2 2 8 2
1 1 2
=2+ 𝑥− 𝑥 +⋯
2 16
𝑥
This series converges for | | < 1, or |𝑥| < 2.
2

| P a g e 206
 1
Ex 10: Use binomial expansion to approximate √7 , √17.

Solution:
1
1 1
−2 −2
1
1 2 −2
=7 = (9 + 2) = (1 + )
√7 3 9

1 3
1 1 2 (− )(− )
2 2 2 2
≈ (1 − . + . ( ) ) = 0.3025
3 2 9 2! 9

1
1 1
1 2
√17 = 17 = (16 + 1) = 4 (1 + 16)
2 2

1 1
1 1 ( )(− )
2 2 1 2
≈ 4 (1 + . + . ( ) ) = 0.4.127
2 16 2! 16

Notes

- The previous example can’t be solved by using the binomial

1
theorem to expand (1 + 16)2 because the series will be divergent
as 16 is not the interval of convergence which is −1 < 𝑥 < 1.
- The general idea to solve problems like the previous one is to relate
the given number to the nearest number that have a perfect (square)
root. For example, 17 = 1 + 16, 23 = 25 − 2, … We choose the
nearest number (having a perfect square root) to accelerate
convergence.

1 1
Ex 11: Prove that √𝑥 = 2 + 4 (𝑥 − 4) − 64 (𝑥 − 4)2 + 512(𝑥 − 4)3 +
⋯, and hence expand (16 − 𝑥 2 )√𝑥 in terms of (𝑥 − 4).

Solution:
We need Taylor series of √𝑥 about 𝑥 = 4, and hence we proceed as
follows:

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝑥, 𝑓 (4) = 2
1 1 1
𝑓′(𝑥) = , 𝑓 ′ (4) =
2 √𝑥 4

| P a g e 207
 3
1 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 −2 , 𝑓 ′′ (4) = −
4 32
5
3 3
𝑓′′′(𝑥) = 𝑥 −2 , 𝑓 ′′′ (4) =
8 256

This yields,
1 1 (𝑥−4)2 3 (𝑥−4)3
√𝑥 = 2 + 4 (𝑥 − 4) − 32 2!
+
256 3!
+⋯
1 1 1
= 2 + (𝑥 − 4) − (𝑥 − 4)2 + (𝑥 − 4)3 + ⋯
4 64 512

Now, we can easily (or, of course, using Taylor series) expand (16 − 𝑥 2 )
in terms of (𝑥 − 4) as follows:

16 − 𝑥 2 = −(𝑥 2 − 16) = −((𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4)) = −((𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 4 +

8))

= −8(𝑥 − 4) − (𝑥 − 4)2

The required expansion can then be obtained by multiplying the two

expansions and collecting similar terms. This gives,

(16 − 𝑥 2 )√𝑥
1 1
= (−8(𝑥 − 4) − (𝑥 − 4)2 ). (2 + (𝑥 − 4) − (𝑥 − 4)2
4 64
1
+ (𝑥 − 4)3 + ⋯ )
512
1
= −16(𝑥 − 4) − 4(𝑥 − 4)2 − (𝑥 − 4)3 + ⋯
8

Ex 12: Find the first three terms in the Maclaurin expansion of 𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥.
Solution:
Use the expansion of the elementary functions we have,
1
𝑒 2𝑥 = 1 + (2𝑥) + (2𝑥 )2 + ⋯ = 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + ⋯
2!

1 1
sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + ⋯
3! 5!

| P a g e 208
Multiplying the two expansions and collecting similar terms give the
required result:
1 1
𝑒 2𝑥 sin 𝑥 = (1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + ⋯ ) (𝑥 − 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 + ⋯ )
3! 5!

11
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
6

Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we studied the Taylor and Maclaurin expansions. First, we
proved the formula of Taylor and Maclaurin expansions. Then, we gave
examples to learn how to obtain Taylor and Maclaurin expansions for
different functions. These expansions provide a way to approximate a
function with a polynomial.

| P a g e 209
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 210
 Chapter 13: Binomial Series

In this chapter, we study the binomial expansion. First, we study the case
of positive integer power. Then, we study the case of negative or
fractional power. Some forms are studied in more detail. Some
applications such as approximating values are studied.

By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• make the binomial expansion for positive integer

• make the binomial expansion for negative or fractional power
• know the concept of the interval of convergence
• apply the binomial expansion to give an approximation of some
values

1) For n positive integer

(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛 𝐶1 𝑥 𝑛−1𝑦1 + 𝑛𝐶2 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯ + 𝑦 𝑛

e.g.

(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2

(𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3

(𝑥 + 𝑦)4 = 𝑥 4 + 4𝐶1𝑥 3𝑦 + 4𝐶2𝑥 2𝑦 2 + 4𝐶3𝑥𝑦 3 + 𝑦 4

𝑛 𝑛!
𝐶𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟! combination

𝑛
𝐶1 = 𝑛 , 𝑛𝐶0 = 1 , 𝑛𝐶𝑛 = 1
𝑛
(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟=0

𝑛
𝑛
(1 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )) = ∑ 𝑛𝐶𝑟 (𝑓(𝑥))𝑟
𝑟=0

| P a g e 211
Ex 1: Find the general term of (1 − 3𝑥 )4
Solution:
The general term is 4𝐶𝑟 (−3𝑥)𝑟 = 4𝐶𝑟 (−3)𝑟 𝑥 𝑟

The coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = 4𝐶𝑟 (−1)𝑟 (3)𝑟

Ex 2: Find the coefficient of 𝑥 2𝑟 in (7 + 5𝑥 2 )5

Solution:
5 5
75 (1 + 𝑥 2 )
7

5 𝑟
75 5𝐶𝑟 ( ) 𝑥 2𝑟 General term
7

5 𝑟
The coefficient of 𝑥 2𝑟 in (7 + 5𝑥 2)5 = 75 5𝐶𝑟 ( )
7

Ex 3:
Find coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 in (2 − 𝑥 )20 then find coefficient of 𝑥 13 ,
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟+2

Solution:
𝑥 20
(2 − 𝑥 )20 = 220 (1 − )
2

1 𝑟
General term= 220 20
𝐶𝑟 (−1)𝑟 ( ) 𝑥 𝑟
2

1 𝑟
coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = 220 20
𝐶𝑟 (−1)𝑟 ( )
2

1 13
Put 𝑟 = 13 , coefficient of 𝑥 13 = −220 20
𝐶13 ( ) = −27 20
𝐶13
2

To get the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟+2 replace 𝑟 → 𝑟 + 2

| P a g e 212
 1 𝑟+2
= 220 20
𝐶𝑟+2 (−1)𝑟+2 ( ) = 20
𝐶𝑟+2 220−(𝑟+2) (−1)𝑟
2

Ex 4: For an expansion if coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟+3 was 40

𝐶𝑟 2𝑟+1

Find coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟

Solution:
If we replace 𝑟 → 𝑟 − 3

Coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = 40
𝐶𝑟−3 2𝑟−3+1 = 40
𝐶𝑟−3 2𝑟−2

2) For 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 or fractional power

(Generalization of binomial theorem for any real 𝑛)

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 3

(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!
Interval of convergence |𝑥| < 1

−1 < 𝑥 < 1

For some values of 𝑛, the series is convergent for 𝑥 = ±1. But this case
needs a series test to be checked (will be explained later).

Binomial proof
Using Maclaurin expansion
𝑓 ′ (0) 𝑓 ′′ (0) 2 𝑓 ′′′ (0) 3
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
1! 2! 3!
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 → 𝑓 (0) = 1

𝑓′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 )𝑛−1 → 𝑓′(0) = 𝑛

𝑓′′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛−2 → 𝑓′′(0) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)

𝑓′′′(𝑥 ) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛−3 → 𝑓′′′(0) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)

| P a g e 213
.
.
.
Substituting in Maclaurin expansion

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 3

(1 + 𝑥 )𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!

In general
𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )) = 1 + 𝑛𝑓(𝑥 ) + (𝑓(𝑥)) + (𝑓(𝑥)) + ⋯
2! 3!

|𝑓(𝑥)| < 1 Solve the inequality to get the interval of convergence of 𝑥

Interval of convergence

Values of 𝑥 which make the expansion convergent

Ex 5:
1
Find binomial expansion of and get the interval of convergence
2 − 3𝑥
Solution:
3𝑥 −1
(2 − 3𝑥 )−1 =2 −1
(1 − )
2
1 3𝑥 (−1)(−2) 3𝑥 2 (−1)(−2)(−3) 3𝑥 3
= [1 + (−1) (− ) + (− ) + (− )
2 2 2! 2 3! 2

+ ⋯]

1 3 32 2 33 3
= [1 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 + ⋯ ]
2 2 2 2

Interval of convergence I.C.

| P a g e 214
 3𝑥
| |<1
2

3𝑥
−1 < <1
2

2 2
− <𝑥<
3 3

Ex 6:
1
Find binomial expansion of and get the interval of convergence
√3 − 𝑥 2

Solution:
1
1 1 −2
2 )−2 −2 𝑥2
(3 − 𝑥 =3 (1 − )
3
1 3 2 1 3 5 3
1 1 𝑥2 (−2)(−2) 𝑥2 (−2)(−2)(−2) 𝑥2
= [1 + (− ) (− )+ (− ) + (− ) +⋯]
√3 2 3 2! 3 3! 3

1 1 1
= [1 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥4 +⋯]
√3 6 23 (3)

I.C

𝑥2
|− | < 1
3

|𝑥 2| < 3

√𝑥 2 < √3

By taking square root

|𝑥| < √3

−√3 < 𝑥 < √3

| P a g e 215
Recall that

1) √𝑥 2 = |𝑥|

2) |𝑥| < 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 → −𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

3) |𝑥| < 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 → 𝑥∈∅

4) 𝑥 2 < 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 → |𝑥| < √𝑎 → −√𝑎 < 𝑥 < √𝑎

5) 𝑥 2 < 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 → 𝑥 ∈ ∅

Notes
To get the binomial expansion
1 1
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2
= 2
= (1 + 𝑥 )−2
1 + 2𝑥 + 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 )
𝑥−2 2−𝑥 1
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = = − = −√2 − 𝑥 = −(2 − 𝑥 )2
√2 − 𝑥 √2 − 𝑥

Using Binomial in finding approximations

Ex 7:
Use binomial to find approximate value for √7

Solution:
1
1 2 2
√7 = √9 − 2 = (9 − 2)2 = √9 (1 − )
9
1 1 1 1 3
1 2 (2) (− 2) 2 2 (2) (− 2) (− 2) 2 3
= 3 [1 + ( ) (− ) + (− ) + (− ) + ⋯ ]
2 9 2! 9 3! 9

1 1 1
≅ 3 [1 − − − ]
9 2 × 92 2 × 93

| P a g e 216
 1
Why we don't use √7 = √1 + 6 = (1 + 6)2

6 not inside I.C

IC

−1 1 6

Alternative solution
1
1 1 6 −2
√7 = = = (1 − )
1 6 7
√ √1 −
7 7
1 3
1 6 (− ) (− )
2 2 6 2
= 1 + (− ) (− ) + (− ) + ⋯
2 7 2! 7

Known expansions
∞
1
(1 − 𝑥 )−1 = = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑥𝑟
1−𝑥
𝑟=0
∞
1
(1 + 𝑥 )−1 = = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑟 𝑥 𝑟
1+𝑥
𝑟=0
∞
(1 − 𝑥 )−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯ = ∑(𝑟 + 1)𝑥 𝑟
𝑟=0
∞
(1 + 𝑥 )−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + ⋯ = ∑(−1)𝑟 (𝑟 + 1)𝑥 𝑟
𝑟=0

| P a g e 217
 Ex 8:
1
For find the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 and interval of convergence
1 − 2𝑥

Solution:
∞ ∞
(1 − 2𝑥 )−1 = ∑(2𝑥 )𝑟 = ∑ 2𝑟 𝑥 𝑟
𝑟=0 𝑟=0

the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 is 2𝑟

I.C.
1 1
|−2𝑥| < 1 → −1 < 2𝑥 < 1 → − <𝑥<
2 2

Bracket Expansion Sign of terms

−1 ∞
1) (1 − 𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑟
All positive
∑(𝑓 (𝑥 ))
𝑟=0
−1 ∞
2) (1 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )) + − + − + −
∑(−1)𝑟 (𝑓(𝑥))𝑟
𝑟=0
−2 ∞
3) (1 − 𝑓 (𝑥 )) All positive
∑(𝑟 + 1)(𝑓(𝑥 ))𝑟
𝑟=0
−2 ∞
4) (1 + 𝑓 (𝑥 )) + − + − + −
∑(−1 )𝑟 ( 𝑟
𝑟 + 1)(𝑓(𝑥 ))
𝑟=0

| P a g e 218
Ex 9:
1
For 2 2 find the coefficient of 𝑥 2𝑟 and get the interval of convergence
(3 − 2𝑥 )

and the coefficient of 𝑥 −1

Solution:
2
2 )−2 −2
2𝑥 2
(3 − 2𝑥 =3 (1 − )
3
∞ 𝑟
1 2𝑥 2
= ∑(𝑟 + 1) ( )
9 3
𝑟=0

1 2 𝑟 2𝑟
G. T(General term) = (𝑟 + 1) ( ) 𝑥
9 3

2𝑟
1 2 𝑟
The coefficient of 𝑥 = (𝑟 + 1) ( )
9 3
𝑟 𝑟
𝑟→ 1 𝑟 2 2
𝑟 2
the coefficient of 𝑥 → ( + 1 )( )
9 2 3
2𝑥 2 2𝑥 2 3
𝐼𝐶 → −1 < <1→ <1 → 𝑥2 <
3 3 2

3
|𝑥| < √
2

3 3
−√ < |𝑥| < √
2 2
𝑟
1 𝑟 2 2
(
then the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = {9 2 + 1 ) ( ) r is even
3
0 r is odd

| P a g e 219
Ex 10:
1 + 2𝑥
For 2
find binomial expansion and the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟
(2 − 3𝑥 )
Solution:
= (1 + 2𝑥 )(2 − 3𝑥 )−2

3𝑥 −2
= 2−2(1 + 2𝑥 ) (1 − )
2

1 3𝑥 3𝑥 2 3𝑥 𝑟
= (1 + 2𝑥 ) [1 + 2 ( ) + 3 ( ) + (𝑟 + 1) ( ) … … . ]
4 2 2 2

If we want to get the coefficient of 𝑥 2

1 3 3 2
= [ (2) (2 × ) + (1)(3) ( ) ]
4 2 2
1
∴ the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = (1 × the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 + 2 × the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟−1 )
4

We use general term

1 3 𝑟 3 𝑟−1
= (1 × (𝑟 + 1) ( ) + 2(𝑟) ( ) ) , 𝑟≥1
4 2 2

Ex 11:
1 + 2𝑥 2
For ( ) Find the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟
1 − 2𝑥

Solution:
= (1 + 2𝑥 )2 (1 − 2𝑥 )−2

= (1 + 4𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 )[1 + 2(2𝑥 ) + 3(2𝑥 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑟 + 1)(2𝑥 )𝑟 + ⋯

The term of 𝑥 𝑟 comes from

| P a g e 220
(1) × 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑟 + (4𝑥 )(𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑟−1) + (4𝑥 2)(𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑟−2)

the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 = (1)(𝑟 + 1)2𝑟 + (4)(𝑟)(2)𝑟−1 + 4(𝑟 − 1)(2)𝑟−2

,𝑟≥2

Ex 12:
Given G. T as (−1)𝑟 2𝑟 𝑥 2𝑟+1 find the coefficient of 𝑥 2𝑟−3

Solution:
let 2𝑟 + 1 = 2𝑟 ′ − 3

𝑟 = 𝑟′ − 2
′ −3
the coefficient of 𝑥 2𝑟 , replace 𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑟 ′ − 2 in G.T
′ −2 ′ −2
= (−1)𝑟 (2)𝑟

∴ the coefficient of 𝑥 2𝑟−3 = (−1)𝑟−2(2)𝑟−2

Ex 13:
1
For find the coefficient of 𝑥 𝑟 & 𝐼𝐶
(1 − 𝑥 )(2 − 𝑥 )

Hint: use partial fraction

Solution:
1 1 1
using the cover method = −
(1 − 𝑥 )(2 − 𝑥 ) 1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥

= (1 − 𝑥 )−1 − (2 − 𝑥 )−1
𝑥 −1
= (1 − 𝑥 )−1 −2 −1
(1 − )
2

2
1 𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑟
𝑥 𝑟
= [1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥 … ] − [1 + + ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) … ]
2 2 2 2

| P a g e 221
 𝑟
1 1 𝑟
The coefficient of 𝑥 = 1 − ( )
2 2
𝐼𝐶1 → −1 < 𝑥 < 1
𝑥
𝐼𝐶2 → −1 < < 1 → −2 < 𝑥 < 2
2
𝐼𝐶 → 𝐼𝐶1 ∩ 𝐼𝐶2 → −1 < 𝑥 < 1

−1 1

−2 2

Summary of Chapter
In this chapter, we studied the binomial series expansion with two cases
related to the power, first case when the power is positive integer and
second case when the power is fractional or negative number. In both
cases we studied the general term idea and the interval of convergence.
As an application we learned how to use binomial series expansion to get
approximate values.

| P a g e 222
 2023 - 2024

| P a g e 223
 Chapter 14: Fourier Series

In this chapter, we study the Fourier series expansion which expands a

given periodic function to the sum of sines and cosines with different
frequencies. Fourier series is a vital tool in several engineering
disciplines.
By the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

• find the Fourier series of a given periodic function in the general

form
• determine if the given periodic function satisfies any of the special
cases, and properly express the Fourier series in such a case
• complete a given function to satisfy certain special cases needed in
some applications

Introduction
A periodic function with period 𝑝 is a function that repeats itself every
interval with length 𝑝. This is described as 𝐹 (𝑥 + 𝑝) = 𝐹(𝑥).
Given a periodic function 𝐹 with period 𝑝, then the Fourier series of
𝐹(𝑥) is expressed as an infinite series in the form:
∞

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥

𝑛=1

2𝜋
where 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓 = is the fundamental angular velocity and 𝑓 is the
𝑝
1
frequency (𝑓 = ). The first term of the expansion is a constant 𝐴 which
𝑝
describes the DC (Direct Current) component of the periodic function 𝐹.
The DC component is denoted as 𝐹𝐷𝐶 The other terms of the expansion
(i.e. ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥) is the expansion of the AC
(Alternating Current) component of the periodic function 𝐹. The AC
component of the periodic function 𝐹 is denoted 𝐹𝐴𝐶 . The expansion of
𝐹𝐴𝐶 describes an infinite expansion in terms of cosines and sines with
frequencies that are integer multiples of the frequency of the periodic
function 𝐹. 𝐹 = 𝐹𝐷𝐶 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶 .

| P a g e 224
The constants in the Fourier series can be determined by the following
formulas:

1 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝐴 = 𝐹𝐷𝐶 = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Note the 𝐹𝐷𝐶 exactly describes the average or mean of the periodic
function 𝐹. From the described formulas, we notice that the formula for 𝐴
can be related to formula for 𝑎𝑛 (in the case of 𝑛 = 0 ) as:
1
𝐴 = 𝑎0 .
2

Proofs of the expressions for the Fourier series coefficients

In this part, the expressions for the Fourier series coefficients will be
proved.

First, we will start by evaluating the following integrals:

𝑝/2
(1) ∫−𝑝/2 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

(Integration of odd function)

𝑝/2
∴ ∫−𝑝/2 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (1)

| P a g e 225
 𝑝
2
(2) ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑝
−2
𝑝/2

= 2 ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

0

(Integration of even function)

𝑝/2

= ∫ (cos((𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥) + cos((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

0
𝑝
sin((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥) 2
[𝑥 + ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚
(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0
0
= 𝑝
sin((𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥) sin((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥) 2
[ + ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚
{ (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0
0

𝑝 sin((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜋)
( + ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚
2 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0
=
sin((𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜋) sin((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜋)
( + ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚
{ (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0

𝑝/2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚
={
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚

(Recall sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0)
𝑝
2
𝑝/2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚
∴ ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = {
𝑝 (2)
−
2
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚

𝑝/2
(3) ∫−𝑝/2 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑝/2

= 2 ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

0
(Integration of even function)

| P a g e 226
 𝑝/2

= ∫ (cos((𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥) − cos((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

0

𝑝/2
sin((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥)
[𝑥 − ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚
(𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 0
= 𝑝/2
sin((𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥) sin((𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 𝑥)
[ − ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚
{ (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝜔0 (𝑛 + 𝑚)𝜔0 0

𝑝/2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚
={
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚

(In the same manner as the previous integral)

𝑝/2 𝑝/2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑚

∴ ∫−𝑝/2 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = { (3)
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑚

Second, consider the Fourier series expansion:

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴 + ∑∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 ) (4)

To deduce the formula for 𝑨 :

Integrating both sides of equation (4) w. r. t. 𝑥 from −𝑝/2 to 𝑝/2

𝑝 𝑝
2 2

∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑥
𝑝 𝑝
−2 −2
𝑝 𝑝
∞ 2 2

+∑ 𝑎𝑛 ∫ cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 ∫ sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑛=1 𝑝 𝑝
( − − )
2 2
𝑝
2 ∞

∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑝 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 × 0 + 𝑏𝑛 × 0)
𝑝 𝑛=1
−2

| P a g e 227
 𝑝
2
1
∴𝐴= ∫ 𝐹(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑝
𝑝
−2

To deduce the formula for 𝒂𝒏 :

Multiplying both sides of equation (4) by cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 and integrating w. r.

t. 𝑥 from −𝑝/2 to 𝑝/2
𝑝/2 𝑝/2

∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 ∫ cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−𝑝/2 −𝑝/2

∞ 𝑝/2

+ ∑ (𝑎𝑛 ∫ cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑛=1 −𝑝/2
𝑝/2

+ 𝑏𝑛 ∫ cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜔0𝑥 𝑑𝑥 )

−𝑝/2

𝑝
2

∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑝
−2
𝑝
∞ 2

= 0 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ∫ cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 × 0

𝑛=1 𝑝
( −2 )
From equation (2):
𝑝/2
𝑝
∴ ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎𝑚 × )
2
−𝑝/2

𝑝/2
1
∴ 𝑎𝑚 = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑝/2)
−𝑝/2

Replace 𝑚 by 𝑛

| P a g e 228
 𝑝
2
1
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑝 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
( ) 𝑝
2 −
2

To deduce the formula for 𝒃𝒏 :

Multiplying both sides of equation (4) by sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 and integrating w. r.

t. 𝑥 from −𝑝/2 to 𝑝/2
𝑝/2 𝑝/2

∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 ∫ sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

−𝑝/2 −𝑝/2

𝑝 𝑝
∞ 2 2

+ ∑ 𝑎𝑛 ∫ sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 ∫ sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑛=1 𝑝 𝑝
( − − )
2 2

𝑝/2

∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑚𝜔0𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−𝑝/2
∞ 𝑝/2

= 0 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 × 0 + 𝑏𝑛 ∫ sin 𝑚𝜔0𝑥 sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 )

𝑛=1 −𝑝/2

From equation (3):

𝑝/2
𝑝
∴ ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑏𝑚 × )
2
−𝑝/2

𝑝/2
1
∴ 𝑏𝑚 = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑚𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑝/2)
−𝑝/2

Replace 𝑚 by 𝑛
𝑝/2
1
∴ 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(𝑝/2)
−𝑝/2

| P a g e 229
Ex: Expand the function 𝐹 in Fourier series:
1 0<𝑥<1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = { , 𝐹 (𝑥 + 2) = 𝐹(𝑥)
0 1<𝑥<2
1 1 1
Hence, find the value of the sum 1 − + − + ⋯
3 5 7

We first sketch the described function:

𝑝 𝑝=2 𝑝
𝑝=2
2𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝜔0 = = =𝜋
𝑝 2

∞ ∞

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥

𝑛=1 𝑛=1

1 2 1 1 2
𝐴 = ∫0 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [∫0 (1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫1 (0)𝑑𝑥 ]
2 2

1 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥) cos 𝜋𝑥
1 0
1 2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (0)cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 1

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = [ ] +0= [𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0]
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 0 (i.e. Fourier expansion for 𝐹 has no cosines)
1 2
Similarly, 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0
0 1
cos(𝑛𝜋) = (−1)𝑛

| P a g e 230
 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜋𝑥 0
= [− ] = [− ]
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 1

1 0 : 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
= (1 − (−1) ) = { 2
𝑛
𝑛𝜋 : 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝜋
∞ 0 : 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 , where 𝑏𝑛 = { 2
2 : 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝑛=1 𝑛𝜋

𝑏𝑛
2
𝜋
2 2
3𝜋 5𝜋

𝑛
The graph describes the sines spectrum of 𝐹

We can write 𝐹(𝑥 ) more specifically as,

1 2 1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥
2 𝜋 𝑛
𝑛(𝑜𝑑𝑑)

1 2 sin 3𝜋𝑥 sin 5𝜋𝑥 sin 7𝜋𝑥

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = + [sin 𝜋𝑥 + + + +⋯]
2 𝜋 3 5 7

1
To solve the second part of the problem, put 𝑥 = both sides in the
2
expansion of 𝐹
3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
1 1 2 𝜋 sin ( ) sin ( ) sin ( )
𝐹 ( ) = + [sin ( ) + 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯]
2 2 𝜋 2 3 5 7

1 2 −1 1 −1
1= + [1 + + + +⋯]
2 𝜋 3 5 7
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝜋
= [1 − + − + ⋯ ] ⇒1− + − +⋯=
2 𝜋 3 5 7 3 5 7 4

| P a g e 231
Special cases
Even Function

𝑝 𝑝
− 2
2

An even function is a function that is symmetric about the y-axis. In this

case the Fourier series expansion will be in cosines only. More
specifically,

𝑏𝑛 = 0

1 1
𝐴 = 𝐹𝐷𝐶 = ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
= ∗ [ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 ]
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Odd Function

𝑝 𝑝
−
2 2

| P a g e 232
𝑝
An odd function is a function that is symmetric about the origin. In this
case the Fourier series expansion will be in sines only. More specifically,

𝐴=0

𝑎𝑛 = 0

1
𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Note: In general, given a function 𝐹, then any vertical shift of the

function, for example, 𝐺 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐, will have the same AC
component (i.e. 𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐺𝐴𝐶 ). In other words, a function and its vertical
shift may differ only in the DC component. For this reason, the constants
𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 can be alternatively determined from any vertical shift of the
given function. Since 𝐹𝐴𝐶 is one of the vertical shifts of the given function
𝐹, we can determine the constants 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 from 𝐹𝐴𝐶 instead of 𝐹. In
general, we choose to determine 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 from 𝐹𝐴𝐶 instead of 𝐹 because
some properties of the function (special cases) are obvious in 𝐹𝐴𝐶 but not
in 𝐹.

1 0<𝑥<1
For example, the function 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = { , 𝐹 (𝑥 + 2) = 𝐹(𝑥)
0 1<𝑥<2
1
0<𝑥<1
is not and odd function. However, 𝐹𝐴𝐶 (𝑥 ) = { 2 1 ,
− 1<𝑥<2
2
𝐹 (𝑥 + 2) = 𝐹(𝑥) is obviously an odd function when graphed in the
whole domain. From this fact and the fact that 𝐹 and 𝐹𝐴𝐶 have the same
𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 (but not necessarily 𝐴), we deduce that 𝑎𝑛 = 0 without
evaluating any integration. Also, in this case, 𝑏𝑛 could have been
evaluated from the expression of the function only in half of the period by
the expression:

1
𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹𝐴𝐶 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

| P a g e 233
Ex: Find 𝐹𝐷𝐶 , 𝐹𝐴𝐶 , then find the Fourier series expansion for 𝐹𝐴𝐶 .
Hence, find the Fourier series expansion for 𝐹.
𝜋+𝑥 −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = { , 𝐹 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝐹(𝑥)
𝜋−𝑥 0<𝑥<𝜋
We first graph the function

𝑝 = 2𝜋
2𝜋
𝜔𝑜 = =1
2𝜋

Obviously, 𝐹 is an even function → in cosines only

1 1 𝜋
𝐴= ∗ (2𝜋)(𝜋) = = 𝐹𝐷𝐶
2𝜋 2 2
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹𝐷𝐶 + 𝐹𝐴𝐶
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 (𝜋 + 𝑥 ) − = + 𝑥 ∶ −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
𝐹𝐴𝐶 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) − = { 2 2
2 𝜋 𝜋
(𝜋 + 𝑥 ) − = − 𝑥 ∶ 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
2 2
𝜋
+ 𝑥 ∶ −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
𝐹𝐴𝐶 2
= {𝜋
−𝑥 ∶ 0<𝑥 <𝜋
2
Hence,

| P a g e 234
 1
𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹𝐴𝐶 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

2 𝜋
= ∫ (𝜋 − 𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠)
𝜋 0

2 0 : 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
= 2 [1 − (−1) ] = { 4
𝑛
𝜋𝑛 : 𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑
𝜋𝑛2
∴ The Fourier series expansion of 𝐹 is:

𝜋 𝜋 4 1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 = + ∑ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑥
2 2 𝜋 𝑛
(𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑)

Ex: Find 𝐹𝐷𝐶 , 𝐹𝐴𝐶 , then find the Fourier series expansion for 𝐹𝐴𝐶 .
Hence, find the Fourier series expansion for 𝐹.
𝑥+3 0<𝑥<2
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = { , 𝐹(𝑥 + 4) = 𝐹(𝑥)
𝑥−5 2<𝑥<4
We first graph the function:

𝑝=4

| P a g e 235
 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 = 4 → 𝜔𝑜 = =
4 2
𝐹 is neither even nor odd.
We check 𝐹𝐴𝐶 for any special cases:
To determine 𝐹𝐴𝐶 , we first find 𝐹𝐷𝐶

1 2 4
𝐴 = [∫ (𝑥 + 3)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 − 5)𝑑𝑥 ] = 1 = 𝐹𝐷𝐶
2 0 2

𝑥+2 0<𝑥<2
𝐹𝐴𝐶 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) − 𝐹𝐷𝐶 = {
𝑥−6 2<𝑥<4
Graphing 𝐹𝐴𝐶 (𝑥 ) :

𝑝=4

𝐹𝐴𝐶 is obviously an odd function. Hence,

𝑎𝑛 = 0

1
𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1 2 𝑛𝜋 1
= ∗ 2 ∫ (𝑥 + 2) sin 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠)
2 0 2 𝜋𝑛

| P a g e 236
Hence, the Fourier series expansion of 𝐹 is
∞ ∞
𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 1 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑥 = 1+∑ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
2 𝜋𝑛 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Ex: Expand 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 : 0 < 𝑥 < 2 in

(i) Cosines only
(ii) Sines only

For cosines only:

We complete the graph of the function so that it becomes an even

function (cosines only)

2𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 = 4 → 𝜔𝑜 = =
4 2

1 1
𝐴 = ( (2)(2)) = 1
2 2

1 2 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∗ 2 ∫ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2

𝑏𝑛 = 0
∞
𝑛𝜋
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 1 + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑥
2
𝑛=1

| P a g e 237
For sines only:

We complete the graph of the function so that it becomes an odd function

(sines only)

𝑝
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 = 4 → 𝜔𝑜 = =
4 2

𝐴=0

𝑎𝑛 = 0

1 2 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∗ 2 ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2
∞
𝑛𝜋
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑥
2
𝑛=1

Even & odd harmonics

Even harmonics
If a function repeats itself every half period, then it has even harmonics
(𝑛 is even only).
𝑃
𝐹 (𝑥 + ) = 𝐹(𝑥)
2

| P a g e 238
 ∞

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝐴 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑥)

𝑛
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦

1
𝐴 = 𝐹𝐷𝐶 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Note: 𝑎𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 0

| P a g e 239
Odd harmonics
If a function repeats itself with opposite direction every half period, then
it has odd harmonics (𝑛 is odd only).
𝑃
𝐹 (𝑥 + ) = −𝐹(𝑥)
2

[By reflecting the graph about 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 after horizontally shifting half of
the period with a shift that is exactly half of the period]

𝐴 = 0 (the average of the function is zero because in one period the area
above the x-axis is equal to the area below the x-axis but with a different
sign)

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∑ ( 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝜔𝑜 𝑥)

𝑛
(𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)

1
𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

Note: 𝑎𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑏𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 0

| P a g e 240
Important

• Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in Fourier Series → given is full period

• Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in cosines only → given is half period
• Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in sines only → given is half period
• Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in odd harmonics → given is half period
• Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in odd harmonics → given is half period

But
1
• Expand 𝑓(𝑥) in odd cosines → given is period
4
1
even cosines → given is period
4
1
odd sines → given is period
4
1
even sines → given is period
4

Odd cosines only → 𝑛 is odd, even function

𝐴 = 0 (from odd harmonics)

𝑏𝑛 = 0 (from cosines only)

1
𝑎𝑛 = ∗2∗2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝑎𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 0

Even cosines only → 𝑛 is even, even function

𝑏𝑛 = 0 (from cosines only)

1
𝐴= ∗2∗2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

1
𝑎𝑛 = ∗2∗2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

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𝑎𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 0

Odd sines only → 𝑛 is odd, odd function

𝐴 = 0 (from sines only or from odd harmonics)

𝑎𝑛 = 0 (from sines only)

1
𝑏𝑛 = ∗2∗2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝑏𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 0

Even sines only → 𝑛 is even, odd function

𝐴 = 0 (from sines only)

𝑎𝑛 = 0 (from sines only)

1
𝑏𝑛 = ∗2∗2 ∫ 𝐹 (𝑥 ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝜔0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦)
ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑

𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑑 = 0

Ex: Expand 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ∶ 0 < 𝑥 < 2 in odd cosines.

We complete the graph of the
function to satisfy both the
conditions even function (cosines
only) and odd harmonics.
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 = 8 → 𝜔𝑜 = =
8 4

𝐴 = 0 (from odd harmonics)

𝑏𝑛 = 0 (from cosines only)

1 2 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∫0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑛
4 4
odd only)

𝑎𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 0
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Note: In general, Fourier series of 𝐹(𝑥) converges to 𝐹(𝑥) at a point of
continuity. However, at a point of discontinuity the Fourier series
𝐹(𝑥 + )+𝐹(𝑥 − )
converges to the average
2

Where 𝐹 (𝑥 + ) and 𝐹 (𝑥 − ) denote the limits of 𝐹 at 𝑥 from right and left,

respectively.

Ex: Expand in FS and find the value for which the expansion converges
to at 𝑥 = 2, 𝑥 = 7

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ∶ −2 < 𝑥 < 2 , 𝐹 (𝑥 + 4) = 𝐹(𝑥)

We sketch the function

2𝜋 𝜋
𝑝 = 4 → 𝜔𝑜 = =
4 2

Odd function → Sines only

𝐴=0

𝑎𝑛 = 0

1 2 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∗ 2 ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 0 2

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 ∞
𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛 𝑥
2
𝑛=1

𝐹(2+ )+𝐹(2− ) −2+2

𝐹 (2) = = = 0 (𝑥 = 2 is a point of discontinuity)
2 2

𝐹 (7) = 𝐹 (7 − 4) = 𝐹 (3) = 𝐹(3 − 4) = 𝐹 (−1) = −1

Ex: Expand in Fourier series

𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 1 + cos 𝜋𝑥 + 3 cos 3𝜋 𝑥 − 2 sin 2𝜋𝑥
2𝜋
𝜔𝑜 = 𝜋 → = 𝜋 → 𝑝=2
𝑝

𝐴=1
1 𝑛=1
𝑎𝑛 = {3 𝑛 = 3
0 𝑜. 𝑤
−2 𝑛 = 2
𝑏𝑛 = {
0 𝑜. 𝑤
Ex: Expand in Fourier series 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin2 𝑥
1 1 1
𝐹(𝑥 ) = sin2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥 ) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑥
2 2 2

1
𝐴=
2

2𝜋 1
𝜔𝑜 = 2 → = 2 → 𝑝=𝜋 , 𝑎1 = − , 𝑎𝑛 = 0 ∶ 𝑛 ≠ 1
𝑝 2

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Summary of Chapter
In this chapter we have studied the Fourier series of a periodic function.
Special cases of symmetry of periodic functions were also studied such as
even, odd functions, even harmonics and odd harmonics. In each of the
special cases it was illustrated how it affects the Fourier series
coefficients.

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| P a g e 246
 References

[1] Ron Larson & Bruce Edwards, Calculus: Early Transcendental

Functions, 7th Edition (2015).

[2] James Stewart, Calculus: Early Transcendentals, 8th Edition (2015).

[3] Robert T. Smith & Roland B. Minton, Calculus, 4th Edition (2011).

[4] William L. Briggs & Lyle Cochran, Calculus: Early Transcendentals,

(2010).

[5] George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir & Joel R. Hass, Thomas’

Calculus, 12th Edition (2009).

[6] Sherman K. Stein & Anthony Barcellos, Calculus and Analytical

Geometry, 5th Edition (1992).

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2024