TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.Introduction
2.Discovery of gravity
3.Kepler’s Laws of Planetary motion
4.Applications of Kepler’s Laws
5.Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
6.Applications of Newton’s Laws
7.Free Fall
8.Acceleration due to Gravity
9.Gravitational Phenomena
10.Experiment to find the value of ‘g’
11.Conclusions
12.Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Gravity is the fundamental force of attraction that acts between all
masses in the universe, drawing them toward one another. This force
is responsible for the structure and behaviour of the cosmos,
influencing the motions of planets, stars, and galaxies.
Gravity is the weakest of the four basic forces. Gravity is essential to
the structure and functioning of the universe, influencing the
formation and evolution of celestial bodies, galaxies, and the cosmos
as a whole. It governs the orbits of planets around stars, moons
around planets, and the trajectories of comets and asteroids. In
broader scientific contexts, gravity is key to understanding
phenomena such as black holes, gravitational waves, and the
expansion of the universe, making it a fundamental aspect of both
classical and modern physics.
OBJECTIVE
To discuss the relevance of gravity and the history regarding its
discovery
To explain Kepler’s laws and its applications
To explain Newton’s laws of Gravitation and its applications
To explain free fall
To explain acceleration due to gravity
To discuss gravitational phenomena
To explain Weightlessness
To determine the value of ‘g’ experimentally
DISCOVERY OF GRAVITY
The discovery of gravity as a fundamental force is attributed primarily
to Sir Isaac Newton in the late 17th century. Before Newton, ancient
Greek philosophers like Aristotle had their own explanations for why
objects fall to the ground, but these were based on qualitative
reasoning rather than empirical evidence. Galileo's experiments,
particularly his studies on the acceleration of falling bodies and his
observations of celestial objects, challenged the Aristotelian view and
hinted at the existence of a universal force acting on all matter.
Isaac Newton synthesized these earlier ideas and observations into a
coherent theory with his law of universal gravitation. Newton
proposed that every mass attracts every other mass with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between their centres.
Newton's insight was sparked, according to popular legend, by
observing an apple fall from a tree, leading him to consider that the
same force pulling the apple to the ground also governed the motion
of the moon and planets. His theory not only explained terrestrial
phenomena but also provided a mathematical framework for
understanding the motions of celestial bodies, fundamentally
transforming our understanding of the universe.
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY
MOTION
LAW OF ORBITS:
All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun situated at one of the
foci of the ellipse. This law was a deviation from the Copernican
model which allowed only circular orbits. The ellipse, of which the
circle is a special case, is a closed curve.
The elliptical nature of orbits means that the distance between a planet
and the sun changes as the planet travels along its path. This insight
was crucial in advancing the heliocentric model of the solar system
and laid the groundwork for Newton's theory of gravitation, providing
a more accurate description of planetary motion and improving the
predictive power of astronomical observations.
LAW OF AREAS:
Kepler's Second Law of Orbits, also known as the Law of Equal
Areas, states that a line segment joining a planet and the sun sweeps
out equal areas during equal intervals of time. This means that a
planet moves faster when it is closer to the sun and slower when it is
farther from the sun. The implication of this law is that planetary
orbits are not uniform in speed; instead, they vary in velocity
depending on their distance from the sun. This was a significant
departure from the circular, uniform motion proposed by earlier
models. Kepler's Second Law helps explain the varying orbital speeds
of planets and is essential for understanding the dynamics of their
elliptical orbits.
LAW OF PERIODS:
Kepler's Third Law of Orbits, also known as the Law of period, states
that the square of a planet's orbital period (the time it takes to
complete one orbit around the sun) is proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit (the average distance from the sun).
Mathematically, this is expressed as T2 ∝ a3, where T is the orbital
period and a is the semi-major axis. This law reveals a precise
relationship between the time a planet takes to orbit the sun and its
distance from the sun, allowing astronomers to predict planetary
positions and compare the dynamics of different planetary orbits
within the solar system. Kepler's Third Law was instrumental in
supporting the heliocentric model and improving our understanding of
the gravitational forces governing planetary motion
APPLICATIONS OF KEPLER’S LAWS
1.PREDICTING PLANETARY POSITIONS: Kepler's laws are
crucial in predicting the positions of planets in their orbits.
Astronomers use these laws to calculate where a planet will be at any
given time, which is essential for planning space missions and for
observational astronomy.
2.DESIGNING SPACE MISSIONS: Space missions to other planets
or celestial bodies rely heavily on Kepler's laws for trajectory
planning and navigation. When sending spacecraft to Mars, for
example, mission planners use Kepler's laws to determine the optimal
launch window, trajectory, and arrival time.
3.ASTROPHYSICS AND STAR SYSTEMS: In astrophysics,
Kepler's laws are applied to study binary star systems, where two stars
orbit around a common centre of mass. By observing the orbital
motions of these stars, astronomers can use Kepler's laws to calculate
the masses of the stars and the distance between them.
4.PLANETARY FORMATION AND EVOLUTION: Kepler's laws
are pivotal in the study of planetary formation and the evolution of
solar systems. By analysing the orbits of planets and other celestial
bodies, scientists can infer the processes that led to their current
configurations.
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL
GRAVITATION
Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation, formulated by Sir Isaac
Newton in 1687, is a fundamental principle that describes the
gravitational attraction between two masses. According to this law,
every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle
with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centres. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
F = Gm1m2 / r2
Where:
F is the gravitational force between the two masses,
G is the gravitational constant (G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/Kg2)
m1 and m2 are the masses of the two objects
r is distance between the centre of the two masses
This law revolutionized the understanding of gravity by providing a
universal explanation for both terrestrial and celestial phenomena.
Newton 's law unified the motions of celestial bodies with the physics
of objects on Earth, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. It
also allowed for precise calculations of gravitational forces, enabling
predictions of planetary orbits, the behaviour of tides, and the
dynamics of astronomical objects.
APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAW
1.GEOPHYSICS AND EARTHSCIENCES: In geophysics,
Newton's law is used to study Earth's gravitational field, which
provides insights into the planet's internal structure and composition.
Gravitational surveys measure variations in Earth's gravity to map
subsurface features such as mineral deposits, oil reserves, and
groundwater. These surveys are crucial for natural resource
exploration and environmental monitoring.
2.PREDICTING TIDAL FORCES: Newton's law helps in
understanding and predicting the tidal forces caused by the
gravitational interactions between the Earth, Moon, and Sun. The
gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun, causes
the oceans to bulge, creating high and low tides. By applying
Newton's law, scientists can predict the timing and magnitude of tides,
which is essential for navigation, coastal management, and
understanding the impact of tidal forces on marine ecosystems.
3.ENGINEERING AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN: Newton's
Universal Law of Gravitation is applied in engineering and structural
design to account for gravitational forces acting on large structures.
For example, when designing skyscrapers, bridges, and dams,
engineers must consider the gravitational load to ensure the structures
can support their own weight and the additional forces they will
encounter.
FREE FALL
Free fall is the motion of an object under the influence of gravitational
force only, without any other forces acting on it, such as air resistance.
In a free fall, all objects, regardless of their mass, experience the same
acceleration due to gravity(g). This means that if you drop two objects
of different masses from the same height, they will hit the ground at
the same time, assuming no air resistance.
Free fall is an idealized concept that applies perfectly in a vacuum,
where there is no air resistance. In the real world, air resistance can
affect the motion of falling objects, especially those with large surface
areas or low densities, causing them to fall more slowly than they
would in a vacuum.
Examples of free fall include dropping objects in a vacuum,
astronauts in space etc.
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
Acceleration due to gravity, often denoted by the symbol g, is the rate
at which an object accelerates when it is in free fall solely under the
influence of Earth's gravitational pull. Near the surface of the Earth,
this acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2. It is independent of mass,
size and shape of the body.
In the absence of air resistance, all objects accelerate at the same rate
due to gravity, regardless of their mass. This acceleration is constant
and directed towards the centre of the Earth.
The acceleration due to gravity can be calculated using the formula
derived from Newton's law of universal gravitation:
g = GM/R2
where:
G is the gravitational constant (G = 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2/Kg2)
R is the radius of the Earth (approximately 6.371 × 106 m)
M is the mass of the Earth (approximately 5.971 × 1024 kg)
GRAVITATIONAL PHENOMENA
1.BLACK HOLES: Black holes are regions in space where gravity
is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape their pull. They
form when massive stars exhaust their nuclear fuel and collapse under
their own gravity, compressing their mass into an infinitely dense
point known as a singularity. Surrounding this singularity is the event
horizon, a boundary beyond which nothing can return. The
gravitational pull at the event horizon is so intense that it warps
spacetime, affecting the path of light and matter. Black holes can vary
in size, from stellar-mass black holes, which are formed from
individual stars, to supermassive black holes, which reside at the
centres of galaxies and contain the mass of millions or even billions
of suns.
The most clear image of a black hole ever taken was in 2019 of the
supermassive black hole at the heart of the M87 galaxy by the
EHT(Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration)
2.TIDES: Tidal phenomena on Earth are primarily caused by the
gravitational interactions between the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun.
The gravitational pull of the Moon has the most significant effect on
Earth's tides. As the Moon's gravity pulls on the Earth, it creates a
bulge in the Earth's oceans on the side closest to the Moon. This bulge
represents high tide. Simultaneously, another high tide occurs on the
opposite side of the Earth, where the Moon's gravitational pull is
weakest, resulting in a second bulge due to the centrifugal force of the
Earth-Moon system.
In addition to the Moon, the Sun also influences tides, though to a
lesser extent. When the Earth, Moon, and Sun align during full moons
and new moons, their combined gravitational forces create higher than
normal high tides and lower than normal low tides, known as spring
tides. Conversely, when the Earth, Moon, and Sun form a right angle
during the first and third quarters of the Moon, their gravitational
forces partially cancel each other out, resulting in neap tides
.
EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:
1.String of length 1 metre
2.Metal Bob
3.Stopwatch
4.Protractor
5.Measuring tape
6.Any suitable support to hang the pendulum
THEORY:
A simple pendulum consists of a mass (bob) attached to a string of
length L, which is fixed at a point. When displaced and released, it
oscillates back and forth. The time period T of a simple pendulum is
given by the formula:
T=2π√(l/g)
Where:
T=time period of pendulum
L= length of string to which bob is attached
g=acceleration due to gravity
PROCEDURE:
1.Attach the string to a fixed support and tie the bob to the other end
2.Pull the bob to a small angle to ensure simple harmonic motion
3.Release the bob without pushing it, so it swings freely
4.Use the stopwatch to measure the time take for 20 oscillation and
divide the time taken by 20 to get an accurate value
5.Repeat the measurement atleast 3 times and calculate the average
value of T
6.Substitute the found values in the given formula
DIAGRAM:
READINGS:
Length of string taken= 1 metre
Time period for 20 oscillations (Trial 1) =40.2
Time period for 20 oscillations (Trial 2) =40
Time period for 20 oscillations (Trial 3) =40.1
Average Time taken= (40.2+40+40.1)/3=40.1
Time period for one oscillation=40.1/20=2.005
Putting in the values in the given formula, we get
g=9.82044 m/s2
ANALYSIS:
In this experiment, we determined the acceleration due to gravity
using a simple pendulum. By measuring the time period for 20
oscillations and calculating the average time for a single oscillation,
we were able to use the formula T=2π√(l/g) to find the value of g.
With a pendulum length of 1 meter and an average time period of
2.005 seconds, we calculated the acceleration due to gravity to be
approximately 9.82 m/s². This result is very close to the standard
value of 9.8 m/s2 Minor errors can be attributed to factors such as air
resistance and timing precision. Overall, this experiment effectively
demonstrates the principles of pendulum motion and provides a
practical method for calculating gravitational acceleration.
CONCLUSION:
The exploration of gravity and its associated laws has profoundly
deepened our understanding of the natural world. From the early
observations of Galileo to the ground breaking theories of Kepler and
Newton, the study of gravitational forces has illuminated the
mechanisms governing the motions of celestial bodies and the
fundamental principles of physics. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
provided crucial insights into the elliptical orbits of planets and their
varying speeds, setting the stage for Newton’s law of universal
gravitation, which unified terrestrial and celestial phenomena under a
single theoretical framework. The applications of these laws extend
beyond theoretical physics, influencing fields such as astrophysics,
geophysics, and engineering. Experiments like the simple pendulum
allow us to measure gravitational acceleration with remarkable
precision, further validating these theories. Through this
comprehensive project, we appreciate how gravity, despite being the
weakest of the fundamental forces, plays an indispensable role in
shaping the universe, from the formation of galaxies to the behaviour
of everyday objects on Earth.
BIBLIOGRPAHY:
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book
%3A_Introductory_Physics_-
_Building_Models_to_Describe_Our_World_(Martin_Neary_Rinaldo
_and_Woodman)/27%3A_Guidelines_for_lab_related_activities/
27.08%3A_Sample_lab_report_(Measuring_g_using_a_pendulum)
https://science.nasa.gov/resource/orbits-and-keplers-laws/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton
%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/applications-of-keplers-laws/
https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/blackh/4Page33.pdf
