UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

UNIT NAME OF UNIT

1 Electric Heating and Welding

2 Illumination Engineering

3 Electric Drives

4 Electric Traction

5 Tariff and power factor improvement

Electric Heating
Introduction
• Electric heating is preferred over other types of heating method ie., by wool, Coal,
Oil and Gas.

• Practically all heating requirements can be fulfilled by some method of electric

heating.

• Electric heating is based on the principle that when electric current passes through
a medium, heat is produced.
Advantages of Electric Heating
1. Economical
2. High efficiency
3. Cleanliness
4. Absence of unwanted gas
5. Ease of control
6. Automatic protection
7. Localized application
8. Uniform heating
9. Low attention and maintenance cost
10. Better working conditions
Classification of heating methods based on temperature
1. Low temperature heating(up to 400˚C)
2. Medium temperature heating(400 ˚-1150 ˚C)
3. High temperature heating(above 1150 ˚C)

Modes of Heat Transfer

• The heat from one body to another body can be transferred by any of the
following methods.
• Conduction

• Convection

• Radiation
Conduction :-
• The flow of heat from one body to another body
dependent on the temperature difference.
• Two bodies are different temperature to joined
together.
• Conduction refers to the heat transfer that occurs
across the medium. Medium can be solid or a
fluid.
• Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy
will pass their thermal energy to regions with less
molecular energy through direct molecular
collisions, a process known as conduction.
• In metals, a significant portion of the transported
thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band
electrons.
Convection :-
• In this process, the heat is transferred by actual
motion of the molecules of the substances and it
mostly takes place in liquids.
• This is due to the difference with fluid density at
different temperatures.
• The amount of heat dissipation

• H = 3.876 x 10-4(T1-T2)1.25 watts/cm2 .

• T1 and T2 are the temperatures in ˚C absolute of
the heating surface and air respectively.
 Radiation :-

• In this process, the heat is transferred by means of

heat waves these waves do not heat the medium in

between two bodies and heat the body which

intercepts these waves.

Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction
• In this mode, the heat transfers from one part of substance to another part without the movement in
the molecules of substance. The rate of the conduction f heat along the substance depends upon the
temperature gradient.
• The amount of heat passed through a cubic body with two parallel faces with thickness ‘t’ meters,
having the cross-sectional area of ‘A’ square meters and the temperature of its two faces T1°C and
T2°C, during ‘T’ hours is given by:

where k is the coefficient of the thermal conductivity for the material and it is measured in
MJ/m3/°C/hr.

• Ex: Refractory heating, the heating of insulating materials, etc.

Convection
• In this mode, the heat transfer takes place from one part to another part of substance or fluid
due to the actual motion of the molecules. The rate of conduction of heat depends mainly on
the difference in the fluid density at different temperatures.
Ex: Immersion water heater.

• The amount of heat absorbed by the water from heater through convection depends mainly
upon the temperature of heating element and also depends partly on the position of the
heater.
Heat dissipation is given by the following expression.

H= a (T1 – T2)b W/m2

where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the constants whose values are depend upon the heating
surface and T1and T2 are the temperatures of heating element and fluid in °C,
respectively.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF HEATING ELEMENTS

➢Formation of hot spots.

➢Oxidation
➢Corrosion
➢Mechanical failure
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD HEATING ELEMENT
The materials used for heating element should have the following properties:
• High-specific resistance
Material should have high-specific resistance so that small length of wire may be
required to provide given amount of heat.

• High-melting point
It should have high-melting point so that it can withstand for high temperature, a
small increase in temperature will not destroy the element.

• Low temperature coefficient of resistance

the radiant heat is proportional to fourth powers of the temperatures, it is very
efficient heating at high temperature. For accurate temperature control, the
variation of resistance with the operating temperature should be very low. This
can be obtained only if the material has low temperature coefficient of
resistance
• Free from oxidation
The element material should not be oxidized when it is subjected to high
temperatures; otherwise the formation of oxidized layers will shorten its life.

• High-mechanical strength
The material should have high-mechanical strength and should withstand for
mechanical vibrations.

• Non-corrosive
The element should not corrode when exposed to atmosphere or any other
chemical fumes.

• Economical
The cost of material should not be so high
MATERIAL FOR HEATING ELEMENTS

• The selection of a material for heating element is depending upon the service
conditions such as maximum operating temperature and the amount of charge to
be heated, but no single element will not satisfy all the requirements of the
heating elements.

• The materials normally used as heating elements are either alloys of nickel–
chromium, nickel–chromium–iron, nickel–chromium–aluminum, or nickel–
copper. Nickel–chromium–iron alloy is cheaper when compared to simple nickel–
chromium alloy. The use of iron in the alloy reduces the cost of final product but,
reduces the life of the alloy, as it gets oxidized soon. We have different types of
alloys for heating elements. Table gives the relevant properties of some of the
commercial heating elements.
 Classification of Electric Heating :-
Electric Heating

Power Frequency Heating High Frequency Heating

Resistance Heating Arc Heating Dielectric Heating Induction Heating

Direct Indirect Direct Indirect Direct Coreless

Resistance Resistance arc arc core type type
Heating Heating Heating Heating induction induction
Heating Heating
Power Frequency Electric Heating :-
Resistance Heating :-

• This method is based upon the I2R loss. Whenever current is passed through
a resistive material heat is produced because of I2R loss.

• There are two methods of resistance heating.

• Direct resistance heating.
• Indirect resistance heating.
Direct Resistance Heating :-
• Two electrodes are immersed in the material to be
heated. The material called as charge may be in the
form of power, pieces or liquid and forms a resistance.

• In case of D.C or single phase A.C two electrodes are

required but there will be three electrodes in case of
three phase supply. • As the current in this case is not easily
• When metal pieces are to be heated, a powder of high variable, automatic temperature control is not
resistivity material is sprinkled over the surface of the possible. However uniform and high
charge to avoid direct short circuit. temperature can be obtained.

• The current is allowed to pass through the charge

Merits:-
• High efficiency.
which heats it up. This method has high efficiency
• It gives uniform heat and high temperature.
since heat is produced in the charge itself.
Indirect Resistance Heating :-
• The current is passed through a high resistance element
which is either placed above or below the oven
depending upon the nature of the job to be performed.

• The heat produced in the heating element is directed to

the charge either by radiation or by convection.

• In industrial heating the resistance is placed in a jacket

which is surrounded by the charge. Demerits:-
• Low efficiency.
• This arrangement provides a uniform temperature.
Automatic temperature control can be provided in this
case.
Electric Furnaces:-
Resistance Furnaces:-
Requirements of Heating Element materials:-
• The material of the heating element should have following important properties.

• High Resistivity.

• Low temperature co-efficient of resistance.

• High melting point.

• Free from oxidation.

• Withstand vibrations.

• Anti-corrosive.

• Mechanical Strength.
Commonly used Heating Element Materials:-
• The material which are mostly useful for heating elements may be of the following types.
• Nickel chromium alloy – containing 80% nickel and 20% chromium.
• Nickel Chromium iron alloy – containing about 65% nickel, 15% chromium and 20% iron.

Property Nickel - Chromium Nickel – Chromium - iron

• Resistance in ohm-m • 1.03 x 10-6 • 1.06 x 10-6
• Melting point • 1375 ˚C • 1400 ˚C
• Limiting temperature • 1000 ˚C • 850 ˚C
• Temperature co-
efficient (upto 500 ˚C) • 0.000098 • 0.000202
per ˚C
• Specific heat J/kg - ˚C • 441 • 467
• Density in gm per c.c • 8.35 • 8.27
Temperature control of Resistance Furnaces:-
• The temperature in resistance ovens can be controlled by varying the current. There are various methods by
which the variation in current can be obtained.

• Varying the Number of Elements.

• Resistance ovens number of heating elements are used.
• Elements in the circuit is decreased or increased.

• Drawback of such an arrangement does not provide uniform heating.

• Change in Connections.
• Method by changing the connections of the elements either in series or parallel or series parallel
grouping.
• In certain cases these elements can either by arranged in delta or star.
• Adding a variable external resistance in series with the element.
• Resistance in series with the element is changed. It changes the voltage acting across the element.
• Thus the temperature is varied. This method is not economical because there is a waste of electrical
energy in the series resistance.

• Changing transformer tapping's.

• In order to change the voltage, across the element the tapping's of the transformer placed in the circuit is
changed.
• Thereby the current in the circuit is varied.
• Due to the change of current there is a variation in the temperature.
Arc Furnace:-
• High voltage is applied across two electrodes, separated by an air gap, the air in between gets
ionised due to electrostatic forces.
• The ionised air is a conducting material, therefore the current starts flowing through the air gap in
the form of continuous spark.
• With graphite or carbon electrode the temperature obtained from the arc is between 3000 ˚C and
3500 ˚C.
• The heating chamber of the furnace is constructed with refractory lining supported on a frame
work.
• There are two types of arc furnace. They are
• Direct are furnace.
• Indirect are furnace.
Direct Arc Furnace:-
• In this type the charge acts as another electrode.
There are two carbon or graphite electrodes and
the arc is developed at two places.

• The arc is directly in contact with the charge and

the arc is due to the current in the charge,
therefore the charge is heated to very high
temperature.

• Direct arc furnace are used for steel production.

The power factor of such furnace are about 0.8.
the usual size is 5 to 10 tonnes capacity.
Indirect Arc Furnace:-
• The arc is produced between two electrodes and
the heat is transmitted to the charge by radiation.

• The construction of such type of furnace limits

the use of two electrodes, thereby only single
phase supply is used.

• The current does not flow through the charge,

hence there is no automatic stirring.

• So the furnace is required to be rocked

mechanically. Indirect arc furnaces are used for
melting non ferrous metals.
Power Supply for Arc Furnace:-
• The arc used for melting and refining of steel requires power of about 500 KW per tonne for small
furnace of ½ tonne capacity.

• But the requirement of power is reduced to 200 KW per tonne for very large furnaces of 50 to 100
tonne capacity. For the purpose of refining only the power requirement is 100 to 120 KW per
tonne.

• Thus it will be seen that the power consumption of the arc furnace is very high. The arc voltage is
usually in the range of 50 to 150 V. Hence for obtaining above mentioned power, high magnitude
of current is required.

• Therefore low voltage and high current secondary winding furnace transformer is used. For
voltage regulation tapping's are provided in the primary.
Control of Arc Furnace:-
• The power input for obtaining best operating conditions and temperature can be controlled by

• Varying the resistance of the arc by increasing or decreasing the distance between the gaps.

• By changing the tapping’s of transformer on the primary side which results in variation of voltage
across the furnace.

• For complete control of furnace temperature and to achieve best operating conditions both voltage
and electrode controls are employed.
Reasons for employing low voltage and high current supply:-
• Power supply for electric arc furnace is of low voltage high current type. This is due to the
following reasons.

• Heating effect is proportional to the square of the current, therefore heavy currents are needed.

• By using low voltage and high current the electrodes are kept very near to the charge as the arc is
of small length. Thus arc remains away from the roof and therefore life of the roof refractory is
increased.

• The low voltage at the secondary reduces the insulation and safety considerations.
High Frequency Electric Heating :-
Induction Heating :-
• Induction heating is based on the principle of
transformers.
• There is a primary winding through which as a.c
current is passed.
• The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be
heated, which acts as the secondary.
• When an a.c current is passed through the primary
winding, an electric current will be induced in the
metal.
• This induced current produce heat in the metal.
Induction Stove:-
• Its modern electric cooker which works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction to heat vessels.
• Copper wire is placed underneath the cooking vessel.
• A.C flows through the coil which produces an alternating
magnetic field.
• This field induces an electric current known as eddy current
in the vessel.
• As a result, the body of the cooking vessel will be heated
quickly, which will in turn cook the food inside.
• This heat is proportional to I2R loss.
• The heart of such system is the electronic control system.
• It is a combination of power stage coupled with a digital
control system and thermal management system.
High frequency eddy Current Heating :-
• High frequency eddy current heating is nothing but a form of
induction heating. Usually it is used for hardening, annealing and
tempering of machine parts.

• The machine part to be heated is surrounded by a coil through

which an alternating current at high frequency is passed. The
electromagnetic field developed in the coil produces heating effect
in the desired area of the machine parts or metal.

• The heating effect is due to eddy current set up in the machine

parts. Due to skin effect the induced heating current concentrate
near the surface of the conductor through which flux is set up.
Direct Core Type Induction Furnace:-
• It consists of an iron core, crucible and primary winding
connected to an A.C supply.

• The charge is kept in the crucible, which forms a single turn

short circuited secondary circuit. The current in the charge
is very high in the order of several thousand amperes.

• The charge is magnetically coupled to the primary winding.

The charge is melted because of high current induced in it.

• When there is no molten metal, no current will flow in the secondary. The start the furnace
molten metal is poured in the annular hearth or a sufficient quantity is left in the oven from
the previous charge.
This type of furnace has following draw backs:-
• The magnetic coupling between the primary and secondary is very weak, therefore the leakage
reactance is very high. This causes low power factor.

• Low frequency supply is necessary because normal frequency causes turbulence of the charge.

• If current density exceeds about 5 amps/mm2 the electromagnetic force produced by this current.
Hence the heating of the metal is interrupted. It is called pinch effect.

• The crucible for the charge is of odd shape and inconvenient from the metallurgical point of view.

• The furnace cannot function if the secondary circuit is open. It must be closed. For starting the
furnace either molten metal is poured into the crucible or sufficient molten metal is allowed to
remain in the crucible from the previous operation. Such furnace is not suitable for intermittent
services.
Ajax Wyatt Vertical core type furnace:-
• It has a vertical channel for the charge, thus the crucible Image result for vertical core type induction furnace

used is also vertical.

• The principle of operation is that of a transformer in which

the secondary turns are replaced by a closed loop of molten
metal. The placed on the central limb of the core. Hence
leakage reactance is comparatively low and power factor is
high.

• Inside of the furnace is lined with refractory depending

upon the charge. The top of the furnace is covered with an
insulated cover which can be removed for charging.
Ajax Wyatt Vertical core type furnace:- Cont.…
• The molten metal in the ‘V’ portion acts as a short circuited secondary.
When primary is connected to the A.C. supply, high current will be
induced in the short circuited secondary. This current melts the charge.

• As the furnace is having a narrow V-shape at the bottom, the molten

metal will be accumulated at the bottom and even a small amount of
charge will keep the secondary completed. Hence chances of
discontinuity of the circuit are less.
Indirect core type Induction Furnace:-
• In this furnace, a suitable element is heated by induction
which, in turn, transfers the heat to the charge by radiation. So
far as the charge is concerned, the conditions are similar to
those in a resistance oven. the secondary consists of a metal
container which forms the walls of the furnace proper.

• The primary winding is magnetically coupled to this secondary

by an iron core. When primary winding is connected to a.c.
supply, secondary current is induced in the metal container by
transformer action which heats up the container.
Indirect core type Induction Furnace:- Cont.…
• The metal container transfers this heat to the charge. A special
advantage of this furnace is that its temperature can be
automatically controlled without the use of an external equipment.
The part AB of the magnetic circuit situated inside the oven
chamber consists of a special alloy which loses its magnetic
properties at a particular temperature but regains them when
cooled back to the same temperature.

• As soon as the chamber attains the critical temperature, reluctance

of the magnetic circuit increases manifold thereby cutting off the
heat supply. The bar AB is detachable and can be replaced by
other bars having different critical temperatures.
Coreless Induction Furnace:-
• In this furnace there is no core and thus the flux density will be low.
Hence for compensating the low flux density, the current supplied to the
primary should have sufficiently high frequency. The flux set up by the
primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge.

• The heating effect of the eddy currents melts the charge. Stirring of the
metals takes place by the action of the electromagnetic forces. Coreless
furnace may have conducting or non conducting containers.

• Which container is made up of conducting material. The container act as

secondary winding and the charge can have either conducting or non
conducting properties.
Coreless Induction Furnace:- Cont.…
• Thus the container forms a short circuited single turn secondary.
Hence heavy current induced in it and produce heat. This heat
produced is transferred to the charge by convection. To prevent the
primary winding from high temperature, refractory linings are
provided between primary and secondary windings.

• Which the container is made of ceramic material and the charge

must necessarily have conducting properties. The flux produced
by the primary winding produces eddy currents in the charge. The
heating effects of the eddy currents melts the charge.

• Stirring action in the metals takes place by the action of the

electromagnetic forces.
Dielectric Heating :-
• This is also sometime called as high frequency capacitance heating. If non
metallic material ie., insulators such as wood, plastics, china clay, glass,
ceramics etc are subjected to high voltage A.C current, their temperature
will increase after some time.

• This increase in temperature is due to the conversion of dielectric loss into

heat. The dielectric loss is dependent upon the frequency and high voltage.

• Therefore for obtaining high heating effect high voltage at high frequency
is usually employed.

• The metal to be heated is placed between two sheet type electrodes which
forms a capacitor.
Welding:-
Introduction:-
• Welding is a process of joining two similar metal by heating.

• The metal parts are heating to melting point. In some case the pieces of metal to be joined are
heated to plastic stage and are fused together.

Electric welding:-
• In electric welding process, electric current is used to produce large heat, required for joining two
metal pieces.

• There are two methods by which electric welding can be carried out.

• These are (i) Resistance Welding (ii) Arc Welding

ELECTRIC WELDING
It is defined as the process of joining two metal pieces, in which the electrical energy is used to generate heat at
the point of welding in order to melt the joint.
Types of electric welding: -
1. Resistance Welding
1. Butt Welding
2. Spot Welding
3.Seam Welding
4. Projection Welding
5.Flash Welding
2. Arc Welding
1.Carbon Arc Welding
2.Metal Arc welding
3.Automatic hydrogen arc welding
4.Inert gas metal arc welding
5.Submerged arc welding
Requirements of Good Welding:-
• A good weld should have the following characteristics.

• Uniformly rippled surface of the weld.

• Even contour of the weld.

• Even width of the weld.

• Absence of surface defects like overlap, under cut, crack, and surface porosity.

• Absence of internal defects like blow holes hidden porosity in the deposited metal, hidden cracks in the
weld and work piece.
Preparation of work for Welding:-
• It is desirable that provision may be made for expansion and contraction wherever possible.

• The cleaning of the surface is another factor. The cleaning can be done be wire brushes, machining or
sand papering. If impurities present tend to make the joint weaker as the welded portion is filled with
gas and slag and metal becomes brittle.

• Good preparation of joint design is to keep the cross section of the added material as small as possible.

• Joint should not oxidise at high temperatures. Because oxidation at high temperature makes the
defective weld. In arc welding the flux is coated on the electrodes. The flux forms a protective coating
of slag over the weld metal and creates a non-oxidising atmosphere.
 Resistance Welding
• Heavy current is passed through the metal pieces to be welded.
• The heat will be developed in the resistance.
• H= 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑇
• H – heat developed at contact area.
• I – current in amperes
• R – Resistance in ohms
• T – time of current flow
• The A.C supply is given to the primary winding of the transformer through a controlled contactor.
The welding transformer is a step down transformer.
• The secondary voltage is in the order of 1 to 10 volts. But the current may range from 50 to 1000
amperes.
• The various types of resistance welding are
i) Butt welding ii) Spot welding iii) Seam welding
iv) Projection Welding v) Flash welding
 Butt Welding: -

• The process heat is generated by contact resistance between two components.

• The metal parts are joined end to end.

• Sufficient pressure is applied along the axial direction

• Suitable for welding pipes, wires and rods.

 Spot Welding: -
• Joining or fabricating sheet metal structure.
• Only provides mechanical strength and is not air or water tight.
• The plates are overlapping each other b/w two electrodes.
 Seam Welding: -
• Series of continuous spot welding.
• Making continuous joint between two overlapping pieces of sheet metal.
• Two wheels or roller type electrodes are used
• Normally rotating wheels are used.
 Projection Welding: -
• Projection welding is a development of resistance spot welding.
• In spot welding, the size and position of the welds are determined by the size of the electrode tip
and the contact point on the workpieces.
• whereas in projection welding the size and position of the weld or welds are determined by the
design of the component to be welded.
• The force and current are concentrated in a small contact area which occurs naturally
Advantages of Projection Welding:
• More than one spot weld can be made in a single operation.
• Welding current and pressure required is less.
• Suitable for automation.
• Filler metals are not used. Hence, clean weld joints are obtained.
Disadvantages of Projection Welding:
• Projections cannot be made in thin work pieces.
• Thin work pieces cannot withstand the electrode pressure.
• Equipment is costlier.
Applications of Projection Welding:
• Used for welding parts of refrigerator, condensers, refrigerator racks, grills etc.
 Flash Welding: -
• Flash Welding is a Resistance Welding (RW)
process, in which ends of rods (tubes, sheets) are
heated and fused by an arc struck between them and
then forged (brought into a contact under a pressure)
producing a weld. The welded parts are held in
electrode clamps, one of which is stationary and the
second is movable.

• Flash Welding method permits fast (about 1 min.)

joining of large and complex parts. Steels, Aluminum
alloys, Copper alloys, Magnesium alloys, Copper
alloys and Nickel alloys may be welded by Flash
Welding.

• Thick pipes, ends of band saws, frames, aircraft

landing gears are produced by Flash Welding.
 Flash Welding: -

Benefits

• Flash welding is ideally suited to producing butt welds in large or complex sections.

• Weld time is relatively short, from a few seconds for the thinnest sections to a few minutes for the
largest.

Risks

The main hazards are:

(i) the risk of crushing fingers or hands;

(ii) burns or eye damage from splash metal.

 Electric Arc Welding: -
• Arc welding uses a welding power supply to create an
electric arc between an electrode and the base
material to melt the metals at the welding point.

• They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC)

current, and consumable or non-consumable
electrodes.

• The welding region is sometimes protected by some

type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding
gas, and/or an evaporating filler material.

• The process of arc welding is widely used because of

its low capital and running costs.
Arc Welding types
i. Carbon Arc Welding

ii. Metal Arc welding

iii. Automatic hydrogen arc welding

iv. Inert gas metal arc welding

v. Submerged arc welding

 Carbon Arc Welding: -
• Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) is a welding process, in
which heat is generated by an electric arc struck
between an carbon electrode and the work piece.

• The arc heats and melts the work pieces edges,

forming a joint.

• Carbon arc welding is the oldest welding process.

• If required, filler rod may be used in Carbon Arc

Welding. End of the rod is held in the arc zone.

• The molten rod material is supplied to the weld pool.

• Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool

protection depending on type of welded metal.
Advantages of Carbon Arc Welding:
• Low cost of equipment and welding operation;
• High level of operator skill is not required;
• The process is easily automated;
• Low distortion of work piece.

Disadvantages of Carbon Arc Welding:

• Unstable quality of the weld (porosity);
• Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

Carbon Arc Welding has been replaced by Tungsten Inert Gas

Arc Welding (TIG, GTAW) in many applications.
Modification of Carbone Arc Welding is Twin Carbon Electrode
Arc Welding, utilizing arc struck between two carbon electrodes.
 Metal Arc Welding: -
• Metal arc welding a metal rod of same material as
being welded is used as electrode.
• The electrode also serves the purpose of filler.
• A metal arc welding AC or DC used.
• Electric supply is connected between electrode and
work piece. The work piece is then suddenly touched
by the electrode and then separated from it a little.
• This results in an arc between the job and the
electrode.
• A little portion of the work and the tip of the
electrode melts due to the heat generated by the arc.
• When the electrode is removed the metal cools and
solidifies giving a strong welding joint.
 Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding: -
• "A process in which the welding heat is generated by
passing a stream of hydrogen through an electric arc
between two inclined electrodes.
• which are usually of tungsten.
• The high temperature of the arc dissociates molecules
of the gas into atoms, a large quantity of heat being
absorbed by the hydrogen during dissociation.
• The average temperature of the flame is
approximately 4000 deg. C.,
• As for stainless steels and other special alloys. The
hydrogen envelope prevents oxidation both of the
metal and the tungsten electrodes,
 Inert Gas Metal Arc Welding: -
(Helium or Argon Arc Welding)

➢In gas shielded arc welding, both the arc and the molten
puddle are covered by a shield of inert gas.
➢The shield of inert gas prevents atmospheric
contamination, thereby producing a better weld.
➢The primary gases used for this process are helium,
argon, or carbon dioxide.
➢An arc is struck between tungsten electrode and the work
piece.
➢The helium or argon provide inert atmosphere so that
oxidation of the welded joint does not takes place.
➢This process is particularly employed for welding light
alloys, stainless steel and non ferrous metals such as
copper, aluminum and their alloys.
 Radiation Welding: -
➢ A process for welding metal sections in which at least two metal work pieces are welded together.

➢Across a contact area using corpuscular radiation beams to heat the metal in the respective work
pieces adjacent said contact area and form a welded joint.

Types of radiation welding

• Electron beam Welding

• Laser Beam Welding

• Ultrasonic Welding
• Electron beam welding is a radiant energy welding process
in which the work pieces are joined by the heat obtained
from a concentrated beam composed primarily of high-
velocity electrons impinging on the surface to be joined.
• When a tungsten filament is electrically heated in vacuum
to approximately 20000C it emits electrons. The electrons
are then accelerated towards the hollow anode by
establishing a high difference of voltage potential between
the tungsten filament and a metal anode.
• The highly accelerated electrons hit the base metal and
penetrate slightly below the base surface. The kinetic
energy of the electrons is converted into heat energy.
• The succession of electrons striking at the same place
causes the work piece metal to melt and fuse together.
Advantages of Electron Beam Welding:

• Any metals, including zirconium, beryllium or

tungsten can be easily welded.

• High quality welds, as the operation is carried

in a vacuum.

• Concentrated beam minimizes distortion.

• Cooling rate is much higher.

• Heat affected zone is less.

• Shielding gas, flux or filler metal is not

required.
Disadvantages of Electron Beam Welding:
• High capital cost.
• Extensive joint preparation is required.
• Vacuum requirements tend to limit the production
rate.
• Size of the vacuum chamber restricts the size of the
work piece being welded.
• Not suitable for high carbon steels. Cracks occur due
to high cooling rates.
Applications of Electron Beam Welding:
Electron beam welding is mainly used in electronic
industries, automotive and aircraft industries where the
quality of weld required forms the decisive factor.
• For a welding application, the laser is finely focused
as a high-collimated eam of photons that is referred to
as a coherrent beam.
• This monochromatic beam is capable of delivering up
to 30,000 W/in2.
• The most common laser in welding is the CO2 type,
which can weld 1/32 in0thich stainless steel. New gas
dynamic lasers can weld up to 3/4 in. thick stainless.
• Cooling system, either gas or liquid is provided to
protect the ruby crystal from the enormous amount of
heat generated.
• When the flash tube is connected to a pulsed high
voltage source, xenon transforms the electrical energy
into while light flashes (light energy).
Advantages of Laser Welding:
• Similar and dissimilar metals can be welded easily.

• Laser beam can be controlled to a great precision and

hence, the welding spots could also be located
precisely.

• Certain locations in the material that are difficult to

reach can be welded easily by this process.

• Heating and cooling rates are much higher in this

process. Also, head affected zone is very small.
Hence, the process is ideal for a location which is
surrounded by heat sensitive components.

• Clean weld joints can be obtained by this process.

Disadvantages of Laser Welding:

• Slow welding speeds (25-250 mm/min).

• Rapid cooling rate cause problems such as cracking in

high carbon steels.

• High equipment costs.

Applications of Laser Welding:

• Used in electronics industry for applications such as

connecting wire leads to small electronic components,
to weld medical equipments, transmission
components in automobiles and in cladding process.
• In Ultrasonic Beam welding ultrasonic waves are
used as the energy source for welding.

• Ultrasonic waves are sound waves in the frequency

range with 20KHz and more.

• These sound waves are above the human audible

range. Ultrasonic welding is a solid state welding
process.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Welding:
• Very thin materials can be welded.
• Material characteristics are not altered since low
temperature is involved.
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Welding:
• Not suitable for ductile materials since they yield under the
stresses.
• Process is limited to only joining thin sections. Quite
expensive.
Applications of Ultrasonic Welding:
• For fabrication of nuclear fuels.
• Used for welding electronic and electrical equipments. Used
for refrigeration, air conditioning equipments, containers of
explosives.
The following table compares and contrasts the different features of Resistance
Welding and Arc Welding −
Aspect Resistance Welding Arc Welding
Production of Heat In the resistance welding, the heat is produced due to the flow of current In the arc welding, the heat is produced due to the arc
mainly through the contact resistance. created between the electrode and the work-piece.

Supply Generally, AC supply is used for resistance welding. Both AC and DC supply can be used in the arc
welding.
Requirement of Filler With the resistance welding, no filler material is added in any form for In arc welding, some filler metal rod is necessary so
Material joining the two metal pieces. that proper strength can be obtained in the joint.

Requirement of External In resistance welding, external pressure is required for joining the metals. In arc welding, no external pressure is required.
Pressure Thus, the equipment is simple and easy to control.
Voltage Resistance welding requires a very low voltage. In case of arc welding, the striking voltage is high.
Therefore, it needs voltage control.
Power Factor In resistance welding, the power factor is low. In arc welding, the power factor is poor.
Temperature In resistance welding process the temperature raise is not very high. In arc welding, the arc temperature is very high. If it
is not handled properly, it may damage the work-
piece.
Suitability Resistance welding is most suitable for mass production and also for repair Arc welding is suitable for repair work. But, it is not
work. suitable for mass production.
WELDING EQUIPMENT
comparison between AC arc welding and DC arc
welding
Parameter DC Arc Welding AC Arc Welding
Power Consumption The power consumption by the DC arc welding is high. Power consumed by the AC arc welding is lower
than that of DC arc welding.

Efficiency The efficiency of DC arc welding is low. The AC arc welding is more efficient than DC arc
welding.

Cost The cost of DC arc welding is high. The AC arc welding is less costly than DC arc
welding

Arc Stability The DC arc welding produces a stable arc. The arc produced by the AC arc welding is
unstable.

Weight The welding set required for DC arc welding is heavy. The welding set of AC arc welding is light
weight.

Operation The operation of DC arc welding is noisy. The operation of AC arc welding is noiseless.

Electrode Used In DC arc welding, all types of electrodes, i.e. bare and coated In AC arc welding, only coated electrodes can be
electrodes can be used because the polarity of the supply can be used. It is because the current constantly reverses
changed suit the electrode. with every cycle.
Welding of thin sections DC arc welding is preferred for welding of thin AC arc welding is generally not preferred for
sections. welding of thin sections.

Polarity In case of DC arc welding, the electrode is always In AC arc welding, the electrode can act as
negative and the job is positive. anode while job acts as cathode and vice-
versa.

Machinery The DC generator used in DC arc welding has rotating The transformer used in AC arc welding has
parts and hence it is more complicated. no moving parts and is simpler.

Capital & Maintenance Cost The cost of DC generator is high and its maintenance The cost of AC transformer is low. Also its
cost is also high. maintenance cost is low.

Arc Blow In DC arc welding, the problem of arc blow is severe The problem of arc blow does not arises in
and cannot be controlled easily. case of AC arc welding.
Advantages of AC Welding :

It is the least expensive, lightest, and small welding machine.

There is freedom from magnetic arc blow that often occurs when welding with a dc machine.
Operating and maintenance costs are low.
Since there are no moving parts in the transformer, the operation is noisy less and there is
hardly any wear.
Overall electrical efficiency is high.

Disadvantages of AC Welding :

Polarity cannot be changed.

Because of the alternating nature of the current flow, starting of arc is more difficult than
with dc.
Low power factor.
Advantages of DC Welding :

The spatter produced is less in dc welding compared to ac welding.

The arc produced with dc supply is more stable.
Nearly all ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be welded.

Disadvantages of DC Welding :

High initial cost.

Higher maintenance cost.
Noisy machine operation.
The dc welding causes arc blow.
Difference Between AC Welding and DC Welding :

AC Welding DC Welding
Electrodes used in ac welding must be flux In dc welding any type of electrode can be
coated. used.
The arc produced in dc welding is highly
The arc produced in ac welding is not stable.
stable.

The heat developed is not uniform. The heat developed is uniform.

In dc welding when only an ac supply is

In ac welding when only an ac supply is
available then a rectifier or a motor-
present, a transformer is needed.
generator set is needed.
The cost of the equipment is very high,
The cost of the equipment is very low when
approximately two or three times that of a
compared to dc welding.
transformer.
The operating efficiency of the ac welding machine The operating efficiency of the dc welding machine
is very high (about 80 to 85%). is low (about 30 to 40%).

In ac welding, the arc produced is automatically In dc welding, the arc is very severe and also
controlled. difficult to control.

The power factor is very low (about 0.3 to 0.4) and The power factor is high (0.6 to 0.7) when
requires a capacitor for correction. compared to ac welding.

The single-phase transformer used in ac welding In dc welding, the motor-generator set uses a 3-
causes unbalance in the 3-phase supply system. phase induction motor which is a balanced load.

Due to high operating voltage, the risk of shock is Due to low operating voltage, the risk of shock is
more. less.
Less amount of energy is consumed. A huge amount of energy is consumed.
 It is difficult to weld non-ferrous metals Any type of metal can be welded using dc
and alloys due to changes in polarity. welding.

AC welding equipment is small in size and DC welding equipment is larger in size and
lighter in weight. heavier in weight.

The maintenance and operating costs of dc

The maintenance and operating costs of ac
welding are high due to the presents of
welding are low.
moving parts.

There are serve problems encountered in dc The problem of arc blow is not present in
arc welding due to arc blow. ac arc welding.
 Key points for comparison of AC and Dc welding

Aspect AC Welding Machine DC Welding Machine

Cost AC welding machine is less expansive. DC welding machine is 2 to 3 times costlier than
AC welding machine.
Size & Weight AC welding machine is smaller in size and light in weight. DC welding machine is larger in size and heavier
in weight.
Operation The AC welding machine is simple to operate. The operation of DC welding machine is more
complicated.
Maintenance Maintenance of AC welding machine is easier and less costly. It is because it As DC welding machine has moving parts. Thus,
have no moving parts. its maintenance cost is higher.
Suitability AC welding machine is not suitable for joining non-ferrous metals. DC welding machine can be used for all types of
metals.
Electrode The bare electrodes cannot be used with the AC welding machines. Only All types of electrodes, i.e., bare or coated, can be
specially designed coated electrodes are used. used with DC welding machine.
Welding of sheet AC welding machine is not used for welding of sheet metals due to difficulty in DC welding machine can be used for all types of
metals starting the arc. work because the starting of arc is easier.
Arc blow In AC welding machines, the problem of arc blow can be easily controlled. In DC welding machine, the problem of arc blow
is severe and difficult to control.
Efficiency The efficiency of AC welding machine is high about 80 to 85 %. The DC welding machine is less efficient (30 to
40%).
Operating Cost The operating cost of AC welding machine is low. DC welding machine has higher operating cost.
Power Factor The power factor of AC welding machine is very low about 0.3 to 0.4. The DC welding machine has high power factor of
about 0.6 to 0.7.