MODULE 2

ELECTRIC HEATING & ELECTRIC WELDING

Prepared by
Mithra P S
 MAIN ASPECTS
ELECTRIC HEATING ▪ Dielectric Heating
➢ What is electric heating? ▪ Infra-red Heating
➢ Advantages of electric heating ▪ Solar Heating
➢ Classification of electric heating ELECTRIC WELDING
▪ Resistance Heating ➢ What is electric welding?
• Electric Oven ➢ Advantages of electric welding
• Domestic Water Heaters ➢ Classification of electric welding
• Properties of Resistance Heating elements ▪ Resistance Welding
▪ Induction Heating ▪ Arc Welding
• Furnaces-Core type and Coreless
▪ Electric Arc Heating
• Direct Arc Furnaces
• Indirect Arc Furnaces
 ELECTRIC HEATING

• Heating an object or a place or a surface (Raising the

temperature)
• Applications include;
i. Domestic purposes
ii. Industrial purposes
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC HEATING
• The various advantages of electric heating over other the types of heating are:

➢ Economical: Electric heating equipment is cheaper; they do not require much skilled persons;
therefore, maintenance cost is less.

➢ Cleanliness: Since dust and ash are completely eliminated in the electric heating, it keeps to keep
the surroundings cleanly.

➢ Pollution free: As there are no flue gases in the electric heating, atmosphere around is pollution
free; no need of providing space for their exit.

➢ Ease of control: In this heating, temperature can be controlled and regulated accurately either
manually or automatically.

➢ Uniform heating: With electric heating, the substance can be heated uniformly, throughout whether
it may be conducting or non-conducting material.
➢ High efficiency: In non -electric heating, only 40-60% of heat is utilized but in electric heating
75-100% of heat can be successfully utilized. So, overall efficiency of electric heating is very
high.

➢ Automatic protection: Protection against over current and overheating can be provided by
using fast control devices.

➢ Heating of non-conducting materials: The heat developed in the non- conducting materials
such as wood and porcelain is possible through the electric heating.

➢ Provides better working conditions

➢ Safe and responses quickly

➢ No upper limit to temperature obtainable (considering the ability of the material to withstand
the temperature)
 MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

• Transmission of heat from one region to another

• Modes include
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
 CLASSIFICATION OF HEATING
• Resistance Heating
• Induction Heating
• Electric Arc Heating
• Dielectric Heating
• Infra-red Heating
• Solar Heating
 Resistance Heating
❖ This method is based upon the 𝐼𝑅2 loss.

❖ Whenever current is passed through a resistive material heat is

produced because of the 𝐼𝑅2 loss.
❖ There are two methods of resistance heating. They are:
(i) Direct Resistance heating
(ii) Indirect Resistance Heating
✓Direct Resistance Heating
• In this method electrodes are
immersed in material or charge
to be heated.
• The charge may be in the form
of powder, pieces or liquid’
• The electrodes are connected to
ac or dc supply.
• Used in resistance welding ,
electrode for boiler water
heater, salt bath furnaces.
✓Indirect Resistance Heating
• In this method of heating,
electric current is passed through
a wire or other high resistance
material forming a heating
element.
• The heat proportional to I2R loss
produced in the heating element is
delivered to the charge by one or
more of the modes of transfer of
heat i.e. conduction, convection
and radiation.
• If the heat is transferred by
conduction the resistor must be in
contact with the charge.
 Properties of resistance heating elements
1. High specific resistance/resistivity: The heating element of high resistivity will be able to
produce required amount of heat even with small length of wire

2. High melting point: Melting point of heating element should be high so that it can achieve
high temperature in order to heat the charge.

3. Low temperature coefficient: Heating element should have low temperature coefficient so
that with change in temperature the resistance of heating element should not change very
much. A material with high temperature coefficient will draw large starting current.
4. Free from oxidation: The heating element should not oxidized at high temperature otherwise
it will have to be changed frequently.
5. Positive temperature coefficient of temperature
6. High flexibility
7. High mechanical strength of its own
• Heating elements become unserviceable after using it for long time
a. Formation of hot spots
b. Oxidation
c. Corrosion
d. Mechanical failure
• Materials used as heating element
For low and medium temperatures
a. Ni-Cr alloy( up to 1150ᵒC)
b. Ni-Cr-Fe alloy (up to 850ᵒC)
For high temperatures above 1150ᵒC
a. Silicon Carbide (up to 1500ᵒC)
b. Molybdenum (up to 1650ᵒC)
c. Tungsten (up to 2000ᵒC)
d. Graphite (up to any temperatures, but requires protection against oxidation
above 600ᵒC)
 Resistance Furnaces/Electric Ovens
❖ It essentially consists of a high resistive material through which an electric current is
passed
❖ Placed in a chamber made of heat insulating material.
❖ Resistance ovens are used for various purposes such as heat treatment of metals, drying,
packing of pottery materials, cooking of food etc.
❖ Up to 1000ᵒC , materials of Ni , Cr and Fe and up to 3000ᵒC graphite is used
❖ The element may be in the form of strip or wire and is placed on the top, bottom of the
oven depending upon circumstances.
❖ The chamber is heated by radiation/ convection/both.
❖ Use of chamber includes;

1. Control the distribution of heat within the chamber

2. Control the cooling rate of the material if required
3. Confine the atmosphere around the charge
4. Store as much as heat supplied so that it can be used economically

❖Chambers can be either batch or continuous type

Controlling of temperature in Oven
❖The temperature of oven can be controlled by controlling
(i) voltage or current
(ii) time
(iii) resistance.
❖The automatic control of temperature can be obtained by providing
thermostat which will operate a switch to OFF or ON the circuit as soon as
the temperature exceeds or fall below the adjusted value.

❖Protective equipment used: instantaneous over load relay, fuses etc.

❖Maximum operating voltage up to 600V

 Efficiency and Losses
Losses include;
✓Heat used in raising the temperature of the oven/furnace
Q=m*c*△T
m- mass of the material, C- specific heat, △T – rise of temperature
✓Heat used in raising the temperature of the container
kA(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )
✓Heat conducted through the walls = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑡
K- Thermal conductivity of walls/meter in Kelvin K
A- Area in 𝑚2 , 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2 - Temperature inside and outside the oven
t – thickness of walls, m
✓Escapement of heat due to opening of doors (0.6-1.2 MJ/ 𝑚2 )
• Efficiency of the oven

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝛈=𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
+
𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Heat used in raising the temperature of the oven/furnace
Q=m*c*△T
m- mass of the material, Kg
C- specific heat of charge, J/Kg or Kelvin
△T – rise of temperature, Kelvin
 Domestic Water Heaters
• Most of electric water heating is
done by immersion heaters
which consists of resistance coils
placed in slotted cylinders of
ceramic material.
• The material used for resistance
coils is nichrome wire coated
with magnesium oxide for
preventing oxidation of the
element which heats up the
water due to I2R loss in it.
 INDUCTION HEATING
❖Induction heating is based on the principle of transformers.
❖There is a primary winding through which an alternating current is
passed.
❖The coil is magnetically coupled with the metal to be heated
which acts as short circuited single turn secondary.
❖An electric current is induced in this metal when the AC current
is passed through the primary coil.
CLASSIFICATION OF INDUCTION HEATING

❖ The following are different types of induction furnaces:

1.Core type (low frequency)

I. Direct core type

II. Vertical core type

III. Indirect core type

2.Coreless type (high frequency)

Direct Core type induction furnaces
• Primary – AC supply, Secondary-
single turn short circuited
(Charge in circular hearth,
becomes short circuited when
there is no molten metal)
• Rapid and clean melting of metal
• Uniformity due to inherent
stirring of metal
Drawbacks of direct core type induction furnaces
• Leakage is high and power factor is low since magnetic coupling is
poor.
• In order to reduce the effect of increased leakage reactance
frequency converter has to be employed to obtain low frequency as
supply frequency (order of 10 Hz) .
• Pinch Effect- If current density exceeds 500 A/𝑐𝑚2 , the current
flowing through the melt interacts with alternating MF and exerts a
force to the area of the metal and due to this the secondary circuit is
interrupted (formation of bubbles)
Vertical core type induction furnaces
• Known as ‘Ajax-Wyatt’ furnace
• Improved version of direct core
type
• Vertical crucible instead of
horizontal one
• Shell of furnace-heavy steel
• Top is covered by an insulated
cover
Working
• Molten metal is circulated around the vee.
• The ‘vee’ channel is narrow so even a small quantity of charge keeps the
secondary closed.
• Can employ U- shaped or rectangular-shaped
• Pinch effect is counteracted by the weight of charge in the crucible
• 𝛈 up to 75%
• Used in melting and refining of brass or other non-ferrous metals
Advantages
• Consistent and simple
• Accurate temperature control, uniform castings, reduced metal loss
• Low operating costs, high efficiency
• High power factor (0.8-0.85)
• No dirt, noise or fuel
• Absence of combustion hence no metal contamination
Indirect Core type induction furnaces
• No direct heating, instead a suitable
element is heated by induction, then
transferring this heat to charge
• Secondary- metal container which
transfers heat to charge
• LM part- special alloy which loses
magnetic properties at a particular
temperature(Critical temperature)
• LM is detachable, can be replaced
with other bars with different critical
temperature(400ᵒC- 1000ᵒC)
• Advantage- no external equipment for
temperature control
Coreless type induction furnace
• In this furnace, heat developed in the
charge due to eddy currents flowing
through it.
• When primary coils are excited by an
alternating source, the flux set up by
these coils induce the eddy currents in
the charge.
• The direction of the resultant eddy
current is in a direction opposite to the
current in the primary coil.
• Eddy current loss 𝑷𝑬 𝜶𝑩𝟐 𝒇𝟐
• These currents heat the charge to melting
point and they also set up
electromagnetic forces that produce a
stirring action to the charge.
Applications
• Steel production
• Melting of non-ferrous metals like brass, bronze, copper, aluminium
etc
• Vacuum melting
• Electronic industry
• Melting in controlled atmosphere where it is not possible to use large
magnetic cores
• Industrial activities like soldering, hardening, brazing, annealing,
sterilizing etc
Advantages
• Fast operation
• Low erection cost
• Low operating cost
• Can be operated intermittently ( as no warming up is needed)
• Operation is free from dust, dirt and noise
• Charging and pouring is simple
• Less melting time
• Precise control of power
• Most suitable for production of high grade alloy steels since no
contamination of the charge and accurate control of composition can
be obtained
HIGH FREQUENCY EDDY CURRENT HEATING
FURNACES
• Article(charge/load) to be heated is placed
inside a high frequency AC current carrying
coil
• Eddy current sets up and heats up the coil-
heater coil/work coil
• Eddy current loss 𝑷𝑬 𝜶𝑩𝟐 𝒇𝟐
• Depth of penetration of eddy current is given
by,
1 𝜌∗109
𝑑= cm
2𝜋 𝜇𝑟 ∗𝑓
Where 𝜌 – resistivity of molten material, f-
supply frequency,
𝜇𝑟 - relative permeability
1
i.e., d ∝ f=10000-40000 Hz
𝑓
• Advantages
• Easy temperature control
• Depth of penetration of heat can be easily extended
• Quick, clean and convenient
• Direct heating is done so wastage is very less
• Do not need skilled workers for the operation
• The surface area over which heat is produced can be accurately controlled
• The amount of heat produced can be accurately controlled by suitable timing devices
• Easily taken place in vacuum or any special atmosphere
• Demerits
• The generation of heat is costly
• Efficiency is quite low (less than 50%)
• Initial cost is high
• Applications
1. Surface hardening
2. Annealing
3. Soldering
4. Welding
5. Drying of paints
6. Sterilization of surgical instruments
7. Forgings of bolt heads and rivet heads
 ELECTRIC ARC HEATING

• The heating of matter by an electric arc. The matter may be solid, liquid, or gaseous.
When the heating is direct, the material to be heated is one electrode; for indirect
heating, the heat is transferred from the arc by convection, or radiation.
• Electrodes used in arc furnaces:
1. Carbon electrodes
2. Graphite electrodes
3. Self-baking electrodes
• Types of arc heating furnaces:
1. Direct arc furnaces
2. Indirect arc furnaces
3. Submerged arc furnaces
 DIRECT ARC FURNACES
• When supply is given to the
electrodes, two arcs are
established and current passes
through the charge, as shown in
Fig. As the arc is in direct contact
with the charge and heat is also
produced by current flowing
through the charge itself, it is
known as direct arc furnace.
• The most important feature of
the direct arc furnace is that the
current flows through the charge
 INDIRECT ARC FURNACES
• In indirect arc furnace, the arc
strikes between two electrodes by
bringing momentarily in contact and
then with drawing them heat so
developed, due to the striking of arc
across air gap is transferred to
charge is purely by radiation.
• The charge in this furnace is heated
not only by radiation from the arc
between electrode tips but also by
conduction from the heated refractory
during rocking action; so, the
efficiency of such furnace is high.
Submerged arc furnaces
• Cylindrical furnace- arc is formed in between carbon electrodes and
hearth electrodes(top and bottom electrodes)
• No of electrodes; 1 for single phase, 2 or 4 for two phase and 3 for
three phase and bottom conductor is connected to the neutral
• The current from top electrode- charge-bottom electrode
• Power control either by varying the distance between electrodes or
by varying the voltage between the electrodes
• Used in manufacture of ferro-alloy like ferro-chrome and ferro
manganese
Power Supply
 DIELECTRIC HEATING
• Principle of Dielectric heating:
• When a capacitor is subjected to a
sinusoidal voltage, the current drawn
by it is never leading the voltage by
exactly 90º.
• The angle between the current and
the voltage is slightly less with the
result that there is a small in-phase
component of the current which
produces power loss in the dielectric
of the capacitor.
• Advantages
• Uniform heating
• As frequency increases, heating also increases
• Bad conductor applications
• Fastest heating method
• Immediate stopping of heating
• Inflammable articles can be heated
• Applications
• Drying of wood, rayon, explosives, foundry cores etc
• Dehydration of foods
• Gluing of wood and laminated glass
• Rubber vulcanizing
• Sterilization of bandages , absorbent cotton, instruments etc
• Removal of moisture from oil emulsions
 INFRA RED HEATING/RADIANT HEATING
❖ In this method of heating, heating elements consist of tungsten filament lamps together
with reflectors to direct the whole of heat emitted on to charge (material to be heated).
❖ The lamps are operated at 2300ᵒC there by giving a large amount of infrared radiations
and the reflectors are plated with rhodium which prevents the leakage of heat through
the chamber. The lamps used are rated between 250-1,000 watts at 115V.
❖ Charge temperature obtained- 200ᵒC-300ᵒC and the heat emission intensity obtained is
about 7000 W/𝑚2

(where the ordinary heating produces only 1500 W/𝑚2 )

• Advantages
• Compactness of heating units
• Rapid heating
• Flexibility
• Safety

• Applications
• Drying of paints
• Drying of radio-cabinets and wood furniture
• Drying of pottery, paper, textiles etc where moisture content is not large
• Low temperature heating of plastics
• Dehydration process
 ELECTRIC WELDING
• Definition-Process of joining two pieces of metal or non-metal by the
application of heat/pressure/both.
• Welding Processes:
Fusion Welding
a. Based on heat produced by Electrical Energy
b. Based on heat produced by Chemical Energy
Non-Fusion Welding
a. Based on heat produced by Electrical Energy
b. Based on heat produced by Chemical Energy
c. Based on heat produced by Mechanical Energy
 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC WELDING
❖Uniform weld: A uniform weld is obtained by using electric welding
methods
❖Flexibility: Electric welding can be carried out at any desired place.
❖Economical: Losses are less in electric welding, hence it is cheaper and
economical method.
❖Quick operation: Electric welding can be started instantaneously and it does
not require any waiting period.
❖High efficiency: Efficiency of the electric equipment with no rotating parts
are very high.
• Selection of welding process depends on the following factors;
i. Types of metals to joined
ii. Cost involved
iii. Nature of products to be fabricated
iv. Techniques of production adopted
• Most common methods of welding are;
1. Resistance welding- current is passed through the inherent
resistance of the joint (𝐼𝑅2 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠)
2. Arc welding- Producing localised heat by means of an arc
established between the two metallic surfaces.
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• Resistance welding processes are pressure welding processes in which heavy
current is passed for short time through the area of interface of metals to be
joined.
• These processes differ from other welding processes in the respect that no
fluxes are used, and filler metal rarely used.
• All resistance welding operations are automatic and, therefore, all process
variables are preset and maintained constant.
• Heat is generated in localized area which is enough to heat the metal to
sufficient temperature, so that the parts can be joined with the application of
pressure.
• Pressure is applied through the electrodes.
TYPES OF RESISTANCE WELDING
1. Butt welding
2. Flash welding
3. Spot welding
4. Seam welding
5. Projection welding
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
• System in which the metal is melted by the heat of an electric arc
• Types include;
1. Metallic arc welding
2. Carbon arc welding
3. Atomic hydrogen arc welding
4. Shielded arc welding
5. Submerged arc welding
6. Tungsten inert gas welding(TIG welding)
7. Metal inert gas welding(MIG welding)
8. Electro-slag welding
9. Electro-gas welding
10. Electron-beam welding
11. Ultrasonic welding
12. Plasma arc welding
13. Laser beam welding
• Advantages
• Both similar and dissimilar metals can be welded
• Rapid welding action
• Heat is localised when required
• It wont harm the parent metal
• Less skill is required
• Difficult shapes and sections can be welded
• Suitable for large quantity of production
• No filler metal is required
• Disadvantages
• High initial cost
• High maintenance cost
ADVANTAGES OF USING COATED ELECTRODES

❖By using flux coated electrode, slag is formed on the surface of

the weld which prevents rapid cooling of the weld and does not
allow it to become weak and brittle.
❖Remove impurities and oxides
❖Stabilizing the arc
❖Providing a protective atmosphere
❖Providing slag of suitable qualities
 ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
• Electrical energy produce chemical changes
• Used in,
a. Extraction of pure metals from their ores(Cu, Zn, Al , Mg etc)
b. Refining of metals (gold, silver, Cu, Ni etc)
c. Manufacturing of various chemicals such as caustic soda, potassium
permanganate chlorine etc
d. Electro-decomposition of metals including electro-plating, electro-
typing, electro-forming
e. Metallurgical, chemical and other industries
Basic Principle
Consider the case of 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 dissolved in water.
• Dissociates to 𝐶𝑢++ and 𝑆𝑂4−− ions.
• Anode – positively charged
• Cathode- negatively charged
• 𝐶𝑢++−−
(cations) move towards cathode and
𝑆𝑂4 (anions)move towards anode and
neutralize
• Copper deposited at cathode as metal and
sulphate ion at anode react with water and
gives out oxygen
2𝐻2 o+ 2𝑠𝑜4 = 2𝐻2 𝑠𝑜4 + 𝑜2
• If cathode is made of Cu, 𝐻2 𝑠𝑜4 attacks with it
and forming copper sulphate and liberating
hydrogen
𝐻2 𝑠𝑜4 +Cu = Cu𝑠𝑜4 + 𝐻2
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS
• FARADAY’S FIRST LAW
The mass of a substance liberated from an electrolyte in a given time is
proportional to the quantity of electricity passing through the electrolyte
m∝ 𝑄 ∝ 𝐼𝑡
m= ZIt
Where Z - a constant called the electrochemical equivalent
I - steady current in amperes
t – time for which current I flows through the electrolyte
• If I= 1A, t= 1s then Z=m, thus Z can be defined and unit of Z is kg/C
• FARADAY’S SECOND LAW
When the same quantity of electricity is passed through
several electrolytes, the masses of the substances deposited
are proportional to their respective chemical equivalents or
equivalent weights.
m α Chemical equivalent
that means Z α Chemical equivalent
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
• Chemical equivalent=
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
TERMS CONNECTED WITH ELECROLYTIC PROCESS
• Current Efficiency
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑
=
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑
• Voltage
• Energy Efficiency
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
=
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS
• Electro-deposition • Manufacture of chemicals
i. Electroplating • Anodizing
ii. Electro-deposition of rubber • Electropolishing
iii. Electro-metallisation • Electro-cleaning or pickling
iv. Electro-facing • Electro-parting or Electro-
v. Electro-forming stripping
vi. Electro-typing • Electro-metallurgy
i. Electro-extraction
ii. Electro-refining
Electro-deposition

• Process of depositing a coating of one metal over another metal or

non-metal electrically
• Used for protective, decorative and functional purposes
 Factors on which quality of
electrodeposition depends
• Nature of the electrolyte
• Current density
• Temperature
• Conductivity
• Electrolytic concentration
• Addition agents
• Throwing power
• Polarization
Electroplating
Art of depositing a superior or a more noble metal on an inferior or
base metal by means of electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a
suitable electrolyte
OR
Electroplating is defined as the electrodeposition of metal upon
metallic surfaces
Used to,
1. To protect the metal against corrosion
2. To give reflecting properties in reflectors
3. To give a shiny appearance to articles
Operations involved in electroplating:
• Cleaning operation
• Deposition of metal
Cleaning operation
1. Removal of oil , grease or other organic solvents. To accomplish this
soaps , hot alkali solutions or organic solvents such as gasoline is used
2. Removal of rust, scale, oxides or other inorganic coatings. To accomplish
this various acids, alkali and salt solutions are employed
3. Removal of deposited metal by polishing. To accomplish this mechanical
abrasion and polishing methods are used
• Deposition of metal
Article to be electroplated is made cathode, solution is made up of salt of the
metal to be deposited and anode is often of the same metal to be deposited
Metal to be plated-Copper
Requirements
• Acid bath 150-200 gm of copper sulphate, 25-37 gm of 𝐻2 𝑠𝑜4 per
1000 c.c
• Current density 200-400 A/𝑚2 , Temperature 25-50ᵒ C
• Cyanide bath of 25 gm of copper cyanide, 28 gm of sodium cyanide, 6
gm of sodium carbonate and 6 gm of sodium biphosphate per 1000
c.c, Current density 4-150 A/𝑚2 , Temperature 35-50ᵒ C
Uses
• Iron articles to prevent from rusting
• As undercoat for silver and nickel plating
Metal to be plated-Nickel
Requirements-
• For steel and brass articles, Nickel bath of 100 gm of nickel sulphate,
12 gm of ammonium chloride, 12gm of boric acid per 1000 c.c,
Current density 10-20 A/𝑚2 , Temperature 20-30ᵒ C
• For steel, brass, copper and zinc articles, Nickel bath of 180-240 gm of
nickel sulphate, 36 gm of nickel chloride, 24gm of boric acid per 1000
c.c, Current density 250-500A/𝑚2 , Temperature 40-65ᵒ C
Metal to be plated- Chromium
Requirements
• Chromium bath of 180-300 gm of chromic acid and 2-3 gm of
sulphuric acid per 1000 c.c, Current density 600-5000 A/𝑚2 ,
Temperature 40-70ᵒC
Uses
• Where surface is required to be protected from atmospheric
corrosion
Metal to be plated- Silver
Requirements
• Solution of 24 gm of silver cyanide, 36 gm of potassium cyanide, 24
gm of potassium carbonate per 25 c.c,
• Current density 30-40 A/𝑚2 , Temperature 20-35ᵒ C
Uses
• Radio communication
• Plating of bearings
Metal to be plated- Gold
Requirements
• Solution of 18 gm of potassium gold cyanide, 12 gm of potassium
cyanide, 12 gm of caustic potash,6 gm of potassium sulphate per
1000 c.c,
• Current density 20-60A/𝑚2 , Temperature 50-80ᵒ C
• Electro-deposition of rubber
• The colloidal particles of rubber suspended in water is allowed to
migrate towards the anode . Process is carried out in a current density
of 100A/𝑚2 .
• Electro-metallisation
• The process of depositing metal on conducting base for decoration
and for protective purposes
• Non conductive base is made conductive by a coating of graphite
which is made the cathode
• Electro-facing
• The process of coating of metallic surface with a harder metal by
means of electro-decomposition
• Electro-forming
• The reproduction of objects by electro-deposition on some sort of a
mould or form
• For example production of medals , coins, engravings etc
• Electro-typing
• Special application of electro-forming and is used to reproduce
printing and typing etc.
• Same process as that of electro-forming
Manufacture of chemicals
Anodizing
• An anodic coating means an oxide film deposited/created on a metal
surface with the help of an anode and oxidation
• It is neither a purely electrical process nor a purely chemical process ,
it is a combination of both(electrochemical process)
• The process of providing an oxide film is known as Anodizing
• Used to provide,
1. A protective coating on the surface
2. A decorative appearance to the surface
3. A specific colour base for subsequent painting on the surface
4. A bright and smooth surface on aluminium and aluminium products
and make them corrosion free.
Various stages involved in Anodizing
1. Cleaning and preparing the surface
2. Anodizing- converting the metal surface into an oxidized
film
3. Providing desired colour and stability to anodized film
called sealing of oxide film
Electropolishing

• Making the work as anode in a suitable position

• Produces insoluble compounds which are broken down by more
anodic action on the hills than on the valleys of the surface , there by
smoothening the surface
• Polishing of aluminium workpiece by two anodic treatments;
1. Removing the coated metal in fluoroboric acid to have uniformity
2. Anodizing in 𝐻2 𝑠𝑜4
• Polishing of silver plated article by reversal of current
Electro-cleaning or pickling

• Cathodic Cleansing-Sodium phosphate as anode and work is

suspended in cathode , when current is passed caustic soda and large
volume of hydrogen evolved and it removes grease
• Anodic Cleansing- Wok is made anode. Dirt particles are positively
charged in alkaline bath and by electrophoresis they migrate to
negative pole
Electro-parting or Electro-stripping

• Separation of two or more metals

• Example: copper is stripped of from steel by means of sodium cyanide
and caustic soda
Electro-metallurgy
• Includes Electro-extraction and Electro-refining
• Electro-extraction
• Extraction of metal from ores by means of electro-chemical process
for production of metal with commercially accepted purity
• Electro-refining
• Processing of highly concentrated mixture of metals to recover the
principal pure form
• Used in recovering metals like gold, silver, bismuth etc. which may be
present in the form of minute traces
Electro-extraction includes;
➢Extraction of zinc
➢Extraction of aluminium
➢Extraction of magnesium
➢Extraction of sodium
Extraction of zinc
• Zinc Oxide ore is treated with concentrated 𝐻2 𝑠𝑜4 in order to remove
impurities like cadmium, copper etc by precipitation
• Zinc sulphate is obtained is then electrolysed in large lead-lined
wooden boxes employing a number of aluminium cathodes and lead
anodes and zinc gets deposited in cathodes
Extraction of aluminium
• Production of aluminium from bauxite containing aluminium oxide or
alumina, silica and iron oxide
• Bauxite ore is first reduced to aluminium oxide and is dissolved in
fused cryolite. Then the mixture is electrolysed and the liquid metal is
deposits at the cathode
• Then aluminium obtained by this process is 99.5%
• The furnace area is 15𝑚2 , Voltage 6V, current 40000A
• Energy consumption 20000-25000 units per tonne
• Temperature 1000ᵒC
Extraction of magnesium
• Electrolysis of magnesium chloride employing at current density of
160-350 A/𝑚2
• Energy expenditure is 17-20 kWh/kg
• Operating temperature 360-670ᵒC
Extraction of sodium
• Electrolysis of sodium hydroxide, sodium nitrate or sodium chloride
• Energy expenditure is 10-20 kWh/kg of sodium
Electro-refining
• Processing of highly concentrated mixture of metals to recover the
principal pure form
• Used in recovering metals like gold, silver, bismuth etc. which may be
present in the form of minute traces
• Possible to get the metal in almost 100% purity
• It is essentially the electro-plating process, anode is made the impure
metal and electrolyte is made of salt of the metal to be refined and
pure metal is deposited at cathode
METAL TO BE REFINED ELECTROLYTIC SOLUTION USED ELECTRIC CONSUMPTION IN
kWh/kg
Copper Copper Sulphate 150-300

Silver Nitric acid and silver nitrate 400-420

Iron Iron- ammonium sulphate 1000-1600

Lead Lead fluorosilicate 100-120

Gold Gold chloride 300-350

Nickel Nickel-ammonium sulphate 2500-4000

POWER SUPPLY FOR ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
• DC supply at very low voltage
• Power required for electro deposition is very small (between 100-
200A at 10-12 V)
• Power required for extraction and refining of metals is very large and
since most of the processes are continuous and have a 100% load
factor, these plants are located near the hydro-electric power stations
or atomic power plants even if extra transportation of raw material is
necessary.