ELECTRIC HEATING

➢Heat plays an important role in everyday life

➢In present days heat is used to extract the metals from the ores, to move from one place to
another place and to generate electricity
➢ Heat and electricity are interchangeable
➢Heat can be produced by passing the current through a conductor this is called “Electric
Heating”

Advantages of Electric Heating:

1. Cleanliness
2. No pollution
3. Ease of control
4. Uniform Heating
5. High Efficiency
6. Localised Heating
7. Better Working Conditions
8. High Temperature
9. Low attention
10. Less floor area is required
11. No carrying expense
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Different Methods by which the heat is transferred from a hot body are:
➢Conduction
➢ Convection
➢ Radiation
➢ Conduction : Heat transfer by conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases. Rate at
which the heat is transferred depends on the temperature gradients, i.e., on the difference between
the temperatures of the two points/faces/surfaces of a body.

➢Convection : Heat is transferred from one point to another due to actual motion of the
molecules. It is predominant in liquids, this is due to the difference in the fluid density at density
temperatures
Heat dissipation, H= 3.875(T1-T2)1.25 W/m2
where T1 = temperature of the heating surface (°K)
T2 = temperature of the air (°K)
➢ Radiation : Heat transfer is confined to surfaces. Radiant energy emitted and absorbed by
different surfaces. According to Stefan’s law of radiation, the heat dissipation (H) is given by the
expression
H= 5.72 k e[(T1 /100)4-(T2 /100)4]W/m2
where k = radiant efficiency or a constant
= 1 for single element
= 0.5 to 0.8 for several elements placed side by side
e = emissivity T1 = temperature of the source (°K)
= 1 for black body T2 = temperature of the absorbing surface (°K)
= 0.9 for resistance heating elements
Requirements of Good Heating Material (Element)
Material used for heating element should posses the following properties:
1. High specific resistance
2. Low temperature co-efficient of resistance
3. High melting point
4. Free from oxidation
5. Non corrosive
6. Ductile
7. Positive temperature co-efficient of resistance
8. High mechanical strength
9. Economical

Heating element may fail due to any one or more of the following reasons:
▪ Formation of hot spots
▪ Oxidation of the element and intermittency of operation
▪ Embrittlement caused by grain growth
▪ Corrosion
Design of Heating Element:
Design of heating element for an electric furnace is to determine the size and length of the
element
The element can be designed only if the operating voltage, ambient temperature and heating
element temperature etc., are known

Let P= electrical power input per phase (watt)

V= operating voltage per phase (volt)
R= resistance of the element (Ω)
l= length of the element (m)
a = cross-sectional area of the element (m2)
d= diameter of the element (m)
ρ= specific resistance of the element material (Ω-m)
T1 = absolute temperature of the element(°K)
T2 = absolute temperature of the charge (°K)
where k = radiant efficiency or a constant
= 1 for single element
= 0.5 to 0.8 for many elements
e = emissivity
= 1 for black body
= 0.9 for resistance heating elements
H = heat dissipated (W/ m2 )
DIRECTRESISTANCEHEATING
IN-DIRECTRESISTANCEHEATING
Temperature Control of Resistance Heating :
➢Supply voltage and resistance of heating elements are independent parameters whereas current
is a dependent parameter
➢Therefore, the temperature of resistance furnace can be controlled firstly by varyingthe
resistance of heating elements thirdly by switching ON and OFF of the supply

Temperature Control of Resistance Heating

by varying by varying the periodically switching

supply voltage resistance of elements ON & OFF of
the power supply

By variable by auto-transformer by series

Supply or impedance
induction regulator

by varying the number of by changing the arrangement

heating elements of heating elements
by changing the arrangement of heating elements
by auto-transformer
by series impedance
Direct ArcFurnace
Direct Arc Furnace
Indirect ArcFurnace
Indirect ArcFurnace
➢It isalsoknownasAjax-Wyatt Furnace
and its an improvement over Core-type
furnace.
➢In thisfurnaceMagnetic couplingis
comparatively better than core-type
furnaceandpowerfactor isalso high.
➢TheCirculationof molten metal takes
place around the Vee portion by
convection currents.
➢AsVee channel isnarrow, even a small
quantity of chargeissufficientto keepthe
secondary circuitclosed.
➢It isnecessary to keep the Vee full of
metal in order to maintain continuityof
the secondarycircuit.
➢ It issuitable for continuousoperation.
➢ It hasa p.f. of 0.8-0.85.
➢Its efficiency isabout 75% and its
standardsizevariesfrom60-300 kW.
➢Thistype of furnaceisusedfor heat treatment of metals.
➢Thewall of the containerformsthe secondarywindingandthe iron corelinksboth primary
andsecondary winding.
➢Heat producedin the secondarydueto inducedcurrentsistransmitted to the chargeby
radiation.
➢ Adetachablemagneticcircuitmadeof a specialalloy iskept insidethe chamberof the
furnace.
➢Thisalloywill looseitsmagneticpropertiesat particular temperature andregainwhen
temperature coolsdown.
➢ Different criticaltemperatures vary from 400cto 1000c
➢ Furnaceoperation at a p.f around0.8
Thethree main parts of the furnace are(i)
primarycoil(ii) a ceramic
crucible containing charge which forms the
secondary and (iii) the frame whichincludes
supportsand tilting mechanism.
Thisfurnace operates on the sameprinciple of
transformer.
When high frequency say500 to 1000hz supply is
given to the primary windings sets up eddy
currents in the charge by transformeraction.
These currents heat the charge to melting point
and they also set up electro magnetic forces
which produces a stirring action to the charge.
Dueto high frequency of supply the skin effectin
the primary coil increases the effectiveresistance
of the coil and hence thecopperloss.
This necessitates the artificial cooling. The coil
therefore made up of hollow conductorsthrough
which coolant can becirculated.
Someof the advantages of corelessinduction
furnaces are asfollows :
(1)Theyare fast in operation.
(2)Theyproducemostuniform quality
of product.
(3)Theycanbe operated intermittently.
(4) Theiroperation isfree from smoke,dirt, dustand noises.
(5)They can be used for all industrial applications requiring heating
and melting.
(6)Theyhavelow erectionandoperatingcosts.
(7) Theirchargingandpouringis simple.
➢Forheatinganarticle byeddy-currents, it isplaced insidea highfrequencya.c. current-
carryingcoil.
➢Thealternating magneticfield producedbythe coilsetsupeddy-currentsin the article
which,consequently,getsheated up.
➢SuchacurrentcarryingcoilisknownasHEATERCOILorWORKCOIL,the material whichisto
be heated isknown asCHARGEor LOADand the processisemployed isreferred ashigh
frequency heating.
➢The eddy-current lossWe ∝ B2ƒ2. Hence, this losscan be controlled by controlling flux
density B and the supply frequencyƒ.Thisloss is greateston the surfaceof the material but
decreases aswe godeepinside.
➢ Thedepth of the material upto whichthe eddy-currentlosspenetrates
isgiven by

where ρ = resistivity of the moltenmetal

f = supplyfrequency
μr = relative permeability of the charge
Advantagesof Eddy-currentHeating
(1)Thereisnegligiblewastageof heat because
the heat is produced in the body tobe heated.
(2)It cantake placein vacuumor other special
environs where other types of heating are not
possible.
(3)Heat canbe madeto penetrate anydepth of
the body by selecting proper supplyfrequently.

Applicationsof Eddy-currentHeating
(1)SurfaceHardening.Thebar whosesurfaceisto be hardenedbyheat treatment isplaced
within the working coil which is connected to an a.c. supply ofhigh frequency. Thedepth upto
which the surface is to be hardened can be obtained by the proper selection of frequency of
the coil current.After a few seconds, when surface hasreached the proper temperature, a.c.
supply is cut off and the bar is at once dipped in water.
(2)Annealing. Normally, annealing processtakes long time resulting in scalingof the metal
which is undesirable. However, in eddy-current heating, time taken is much less so that no
scale formation takesplace.
(3)Soldering.Eddy-currentheatingiseconomicalfor precisehigh-temperature soldering
wheresilver, copper and their alloys are used assolders.
➢When an insulating material issubjected to an alternating field the atom gets stressed
and due to inter atomic friction caused by repeated deformation and rotation of atomic
structureheat isproduced.ThisisknownasDi-electric loss.
➢It isalsocalled high-frequencycapacitiveheating andisusedfor heatinginsulatorslike
wood,plasticsand ceramics etc.
➢All di-electric materials are represented by a parallel combination of a leakage
resistance Rand a capacitor C. the total current can be supposed to made of two
componentsICand IR
➢ThecapacitivecurrentICleadsthe voltage by90 ° andleakagecurrentIR in phasewith
applied voltage representingdi-electricloss.
➢Thesupplyfrequencyrequired for dielectric heating isbetween 10-50 MHz andthe
appliedvoltage isupto 20 kV.
➢ Theoverall efficiencyof dielectricheatingisabout 50%.
➢Theinsulatingmaterial to be heated isplaced between two conductingplatesin order
to form a parallel-plate capacitorasshowninFig.
Fig.(b) showsthe equivalent circuitof the capacitorand Fig.(c) givesits vector diagram.
Powerdrawnfrom supply= VI cosφ
Now,Ic= I =V/Xc= 2πf CV
∴P=V(2πfCV) cosφ = 2πfCV 2 cosφ
Now,φ = (90– δ),cosφ = cos(90 – δ) = sinδ = tan δ = δ
whereδ is very small and is expressedin radians.

P=2πfCV 2δ watts

Here,

where d isthe thicknessandAisthe surfacearea of the dielectric slab.

Thispowerisconvertedinto heat. Sincefor a giveninsulatormaterial, Candδ are constant,
the dielectriclossisdirectly proportionalto V 2 f.
That iswhyhigh-frequencyvoltage isusedin dielectric heating.
1.Sinceheat isgenerated within the dielectric mediumitself, it resultsin uniform heating.
2. Heatingbecomesfasterwith increasingfrequency.
3. It isthe onlymethod for heating badconductorsof heat.
4. Heatingisfastest in thismethod of heating.
5.Sincenonakedflame appearsin the process,inflammablearticleslike plasticsand
woodenproducts etc., canbe heated safely.
6. Heatingcanbe stoppedimmediately asandwhendesired.

Sincecost of dielectric heating is very high, it is employed where othermethods are

not possible or are too slow. Someof the applications of dielectric heating are asunder :
1. Forgluingof multilayer plywoodboards.
2. Forbakingof sandcoreswhichare used in the moulding process.
3. Forpreheatingof plasticcompoundsbefore sending them to the moulding section.
4. Fordryingof tobaccoafter glycerinhasbeen mixedwith it for makingcigarettes.
5. Forbakingof biscuitsandcakesetc. in bakerieswith the help of automatic machines.
6. Forelectronicsewingof plasticgarmentslike raincoatsetc. with the help of cold rollers
fedwith high-frequencysupply.
7. Fordehydrationof food whichisthen sealedin air-tight containers.
8. Forremoval of moisturesfrom oil emulsions.
9. In diathermy for relieving painin different partsof the humanbody.
10. Forquickdryingof glueusedfor bookbinding purposes.
Weldingisa metallurgical processbywhichmetalsare joined together bythe application of
heat or pressureor both. Filler material maybe usedto effect the union.

Advantages ofwelding:
Awelded joint isasstrong asthe base metal.
Weldingequipmentisnot costlyandisportable.
Weldingproductsare lighter andstrong.
Weldingjointsare easier to inspect.
Alarge numberof similar anddissimilarmetalsandalloyscanbe welded.

Disadvantages of welding:
Welding processrequires skilled operators. Welding
processgives harmful radiation and fumes. Welding
requiresedge preparation.
Weldingresultsin residualstressandneedsheat treatment to relieve the internal stresses.

Weldingcanbe classifiedbasedonthe sourceof heat input andthe state of metal at the joint.
Thetwo basictypesof weldingprocessesare:
▪ Pressurewelding
▪ Fusionwelding
 ElectricWelding

ResistanceWelding ArcWelding RadiationWelding

MetalArc CarbonArc Atomic Heliumor

Welding Welding hydrogen Argon
Welding Welding

LaserBeam ElectricBeam
Welding Welding

Spot Seam Projection Butt

Welding Welding Welding Welding ArcImage
Welding

SimpleButt FlashButt Percussion

Welding Welding Welding
In thismethod of Weldingheat required for the purposeof weld isproducedbythe resistance
offered to the flow of currentat the junctionof two metalsandisgiven byI2 Rloss.

➢Spotweldingisusedfor joiningtwo or moresheetsof metalsbymeansof an

overlappingjoint.
➢ Theworkpiecesor platesto be weldedare held between two electrodesandpressed
together bymechanicalpressureexerted throughelectrodesasshownfig.
➢Now the currentispassedfor a definite period of time, dependinguponthe sizeof the
plates.
➢Thepassageofcurrentwill generateheat at the three junctionfaces,two between
electrodesandworkpieceandonebetween two workpieces.
➢Theheat producedbetween the workpiecesproducea spotweld.
➢Theunwantedheat generationbetween electrodesandworkpiecesisto be avoidedeither
by water cooled electrodes or by making the electrodes with high electrical and thermal
conductivitysothat the heat developedisminimum.
➢Weldingcurrentdependsonthe thicknessandcompositionof the workpieces.It varies
from 1000 to 10,000 ampere at low voltage of the order 1 to 15volt.
➢Thepassageofcurrentvariesfrom a fraction of a secondto several seconds.Thecurrent
strength,time andpressureapplied playsan important role in the quality of the spotweld.

Applications:
It isusedfor fabricatingsheetswheremechanicalstrengthisimportant rather than air or
water tight.
It isusedto all typesof boxesandenclosingcasesetc.
It isa seriesof continuousspotweldsandissimilarto spotweldingexceptthe tipped
electrodesare replacedbyroller electrodesasshownfig.
The two plates to be welded are passed in between roller electrodes. Asthese rollers travel
over the metal pieces which are under pressure, the current passing between them heats
the two pieces to the plastic state and results into continuous spot welds. Depending upon
the numberof weldingcurrentpulsesper second, we getseriesof weldspots.
In practice it isnot satisfactory to make a continuous weld, that isto have the current
flowing continously, asthere istedency for the heat gradually to build up asthe weld
progressesandcauseburningandwarping.It isusualto employtherefore anintermittent
current, sothat a seamweld isactually a seriesof overlappingspotwelds.Thenumberof
suchspotsvariesbetween about 24 and40 per 10cm, sothat if the workpieceistravelling
about 1000 and1800 per minute.

Applications:It isusedfor pressuretight andleak proof tankssuchatransformer

radiators,transformer tank/containersetc.
It isusedfor makinglap andbutt joints.
Similarto spotweldingin thisinsteadof bringingthe concentrationof heat bythe shape
of electrode, it isprojected or humpson the thinner plate which give the heat
concentration.
Thicknessof platesjointed islimited to
2X6mmin steel
2X4mminAluminum
2X2mmin Copper
Thisreductionin morethicknessof different metallic isdue to increaseof conductivity.
Advantagesof Projectionover spotwelding:
More than oneweld are doneat a time , therefore moreoutput isobtained.
Electrodelife isincreaseddueto low currentdensityandlow pressure.
Goodfinishedappearanceisobtained assurfaceremainsunindentendedbythe electrode.
Weldsare automatically locatedbythe positionof projection.
In thiscase,the two workpiecesare broughtinto contactend-to-end andthe butted endsare
heated bypassingaheavy currentthroughthe joint.
Asin other formsof resistancewelding,the weld heat isproducedmainly bythe electrical
resistanceof the joint faces.
In thiscase,however,the electrodesare in the form of powerfulviceclampswhichholdthe
work-piecesandalsoconveythe forgingpressureto the joint Fig.
Thisprocessisusefulwhereparts haveto be joined end-to-end or edge-to-edge.i.e. for
weldingpipes,wiresand rods.
It isalsoemployedfor makingcontinuouslengthsof chain.
➢It is also called by the simple name of flashwelding.
➢It is similar to butt welding but with the difference that here current is applied
when ends of the two metal pieces are quite close to each other but do not touch
intimately.
➢Hence,an arc or flash isset up between them whichsuppliesthe necessary
welding heat. Asseen, in the process heat is applied before the two parts are
pressedtogether.
➢Asshownin Fig.(a), the work piecesto beweldedare clampedinto specially
designedelectrodesoneof whichisfixed whereasthe other is movable.
➢After the flashhasmelted their faces,currentiscut off andthe movableplaten
appliesthe forgingpressureto form a fusionweld.
➢Asshownin Fig.(b), there isincreasein the sizeof the weld zonebecauseof the
pressurewhichforcesthe softends together.

Advantages
1.Evenrough or irregular ends canbe flash-welded. There isno need to level
them by machining and grinding because all irregularities are burnt away during
flashing period.
2. It ismuchquickerthan butt welding.
3. It usesconsiderablylesscurrentthan butt welding.
4.Oneof its major advantagesisthat dissimilarmetalswith different welding
temperatures can be flash-welded.

Applications
1. Toassemblerods,bars,tubings,sheetsandmostferrous metals.
2. In the productionof wheel rimsfor automobilesandbicycles.
3. Forweldingtubular parts suchasautomobilebreakcross-shafts.
4. Forweldingtube coilsfor refrigerationplantsetc.
ElectricArcWelding:
➢In thisheat isobtained byan arcstruckbetween electrodeandmetal to be heated. An
electricarcisstruckbyshortcircuitingtwo electrodesthen with drawingthem apart.
➢In thisperiod the path or arcresistanceincrease(or) decreasein contactarea of the
electrode andionizedair isformed andthisactsasconductingpath for current.
➢In between electrode andworkpiecea filler material isrequired to fill in andcompletethe
joint.
➢Onopencircuitsupplyvoltage of the arcshouldnot exceedabout 60V for a d.c(or) 100V for
a.c.
➢Electrodesmaybe carbon(or) metal givingriseto carbon-arcandmetal-arc welding.Carbon
electrodesare usedond.candmetallic electrodesare usedfor a.cand d.c.
➢In this method the electrode must be of same metal asthat of work piece to be welded.
➢ Theelectrodes itself forms the filler metal and it is used for both a.c and d.c.
➢An electric arc is struck when electrode touches the work piece and withdrawn apart.High
temperature melts the little portion of work piece aswell asthe tip of electrode.
➢Thetemperature of the arc will be over 3500 °c. the potential difference are being 20 to25 V
under any circumstances the voltage should notexceed30V.
➢Correct current cannot to be used in any particular job cannot be stated asit depends on type
of material andthickness.
➢It is common type of arc welding and is normally manually operated process.Therefore it is
also referred asManual Metal ArcWelding.
➢ CarbonArc Welding is used for heavyduty.
➢ When direct current is used, the electrode is mostly negative(DCSP).
➢ Theprocessis started by adjusting the amperage on the d.c. welder, turning welder ON
and bringing the electrode into contact with the work piece.
➢ After the arc column starts, electrode is withdrawn 25 – 40 mm away and the arcis
maintained at this distance.
➢ Thearc can be extinguished by simply removing the electrode from the work piececompletely.
➢ Theonly function of the carbon arc is to supply heat to the base metal.
➢ Depending on the type and sizeof electrodes, maximum current values rangefrom
15Ato 600 Afor single-electrode carbon arc welding.
➢ Electrodes are made of either carbon or graphite, are usually 300 mm long and 2.5 – 12 mmin
diameter.
1. Thejoint designsthat canbe usedwith carbonarcweldingare butt joints,bevel joints,
flange joints, lap joints and fillet joints.
2. Thisprocessiseasilyadaptable for automation particularlywhereamount of weld deposit
is large and materials to be fabricated are of simple geometrical shapes suchaswater tanks.
3. It issuitable for weldinggalvanized sheetsusingcopper-silicon-manganesealloy filler
metal.
4. It isuseful for weldingthin high-nickelalloys.
5. Stainlesssteel of thinner gaugesisoften weldedbythe carbon-arcprocesswith excellent
results.

1.Themainadvantageof thisprocessisthat the temperature of the molten poolcanbe easily

controlled by simply varying the arclength.
2. It iseasily adaptable to automation.
3. It canbe easilyadapted to inert gasshieldingof the weldand
4.It canbe usedasan excellentheat sourcefor brazing,brazeweldingandsolderingetc.
Its disadvantagesare asunder:
1. Aseparate filler rod hasto be usedif anyfiller material isrequired.
2. Sincearcservesonlyasa heat source,it doesnot transferanymetal to help reinforcethe
weld joint.
3. Themajor disadvantage of the carbon-arcprocessisthat blow holesoccurdueto magnetic
arc blow especially when welding near edgesof the workpiece.
AtomicHydrogen(or)Atom Welding:
➢ In this heat is produced from electric struck between two tungsten electrodes in
hydrogen atmosphere.
➢ Hydrogen servestwo purposes, firstly it protects the screen for the arc, secondly
cooling agent for glowing tungsten electrodespoints.
➢ Due to high temperature of arc hydrogen molecules are split into atoms, when this
charged atoms strike against the relatively cold weld they release there heat to the weld.
➢ Thisincreases the welding temperature and facilitates high speedwelding.
➢ Thistype of welding is advantages foralloy materialsAl alloys, light alloy castings.
➢ It hasextra ordinary smooth and clean fillets which are eminently suitable forworks to
be submitted and subsequent drawing and rolling operations.
WeldingGenerator:
➢ In manual arc welding it is impossible to keep the arc length constant.
➢ Any changein the arc length correspondingly changesthe arc voltage since melting rate
is directly proportional to current and independent of arc voltage.
➢ It is desirable to have small current changes for given changesin the arc voltage.
➢ Thisis possible if slope of V-I characteristics curve is steep in welding voltageshould
have drooping characteristics.
➢ Thiscanbe obtained by single-operator motor-generator set consisting of a reverse
series winding d.c. generator driven by either a d.c. or an a.c.motor.
➢ Theseries winding produces a magnetic field which opposes that of the shuntwinding.
➢Onopen-circuit, only shunt field is operative and provides maximum voltage forstriking the
arc.
➢ After the arc hasbeen established, current flows through the series winding and sets upa
flux which opposes the flux produced by shuntwinding.

➢ Due to decreasesin the net flux, generator voltage is decreased with the help of
shunt regulator, generator voltage and current values can be adjusted to the desired level.

Advantages:
1.It permitsportableoperation.
2.It canbe usedwith either straightor reverse polarity.
3.It canbe employedonnearlyall ferrousandnon-ferrous materials.
4.It canusea largevariety of stick electrodes.
5.It canbe usedfor all positionsof welding.
Dis-advantages:
6. It hashighinitial cost.
7. Its maintenancecostis higher.
8. Machine isquite noisyin operation.
9. It suffersfrom arcblow.
WELDING TRANSFORMER:
➢Welding transformer reduces normal supply voltage to about 100V.
➢To regulate the current and produce the required drooping characteristics a resistance or
reactance may be used
➢The resistance reduces the efficiency due to I2R loss, while the reactance reduces the power
factor
Types of welding transformers are:
a) Tapped Reactor method
b) Moving Coil method
c) Variable Reactor core method
a) Tapped Reactor method
➢ The output or welding current is regulated by changing the tap position on reactor
➢ This method has limited number of settings
b) Moving Coil method
➢ In this method the distance between the primary and secondary windings is
changed by the handled provided for the purpose
➢ When two coils are separated out the current supplied will be less and vice-versa
c) Variable Reactor core method
➢ In this method the reactance of the reactor is adjusted by varying the height of the
reactor core
➢ Greater the core insertion, greater the reactance and lesser the winding current
➢ Reverse is true for less height of core insertion
 Typesof Electrodes

ConsumableElectrodes Non-ConsumableElectrodes

BareElectrodes Coated (or)Covered

Electrodes

Dipped (or)Lightly(fluxed) Heavily Coated(shielded)

CoatedElectrodes Electrodes

➢Non-consumable electrodes are usually made of carbon, graphite or tungsten which do

not consume during welding operation.
➢Consumable electrodes are made up of various metals depending upon their purposes
and chemical composition of the basemetal to bewelded.
➢Consumable electrodes are made in the rod of diameter 2 to8mm and length varies from
200 to 500mm.
BareElectrodes:
It has no coating of fluxonthem.
Thearc is struck between the work piece and bare electrode the electrode is melted down into
the weld.
During welding processboth the globules of molten electrodes and work pieces are exposedto
the oxidizing and nitriding action of oxygen and nitrogen ofthe atmosphere.
Oxidize reduces the ductility of weld and nitride produces embrittlement in the weld deposit.
This electrode welding is preferred for low carbon steel and wrought iron metal such as crane
wheels (or) railway wagonwheels.
It may be noted that bare electrode welding can be done satisfactorily with D.Csupplyand
electrode should be connected to negative terminal ofthe supply.
Highly coatedElectrodes:
Thesehave a coating of layer of substantialthickness.
Theseelectrodes prevent more effectively the formation of undesirable oxides and theweld
soobtained will have high quality.
Lighlty coatedElectrodes:
Lightly coated electrodes have a coating layer of lessthan one milli meter thick an are
considered asimprovement over bareelectrodes.