5.

CORALS
 CHAPTER 5
CORALS
5.1 INTRODUCTION

Distribution of corals in the Gulf of Kachchh (GoK) is confined to its southern

shore. To protect these corals, Government of Gujarat declared the area as Marine National

Park and Sanctuary (MNP and S) through first notification in 1982 and then several other

notification at later dates. In this Marine National Park and Sanctuary, total fourty two

locations (Jani and Asari 2004) have been identified, which have live coral occurrences.

Till date most of the studies of corals and coral reef of this area were restricted to the

taxonomy (Patel, 1985; Pillai and Patel, 1988; Venkatraman, et al., 2003; Satyanarayana,

2009). However, the overall status of coral reefs of the MNP and S, is not documented.

Hence, this study was planned to assess the current status of the coral reefs of the MNP

and S. Six coral occurring sites, 2 in east (Pirotan and Goose), 2 in the central (Narara and

Kalubhar) and 2 (Poshitra and Asaba Pir) in west MNP and S were selected for the study.

5.2 RESULTS
Based on the data collected, following results were obtained for the six study

locations. The results contain comparative account of the lower and upper strata for the

benthic coverage (%) of live corals along with other benthic cover classes for each

location. The results also include species richness and relative frequency. At the end,

status of the corals at six locations is compared.

47 | P a g e
Pirotan Island

Reef Profile (Map 5.1)

Pirotan island with one of the eastern most settlement of corals in the Gulf of Kachchh,

is an oval shaped island with total reef area exposed, during the low tide of 61,67,377 m2.

Here the major intertidal habitats were algal ridge, mangroves, coral reefs, mudflats and

sandy beaches (Map 5.1). The concentration of mangroves and mudflats were on the

central part of the island, whereas coral reef extended along the northeastern, northern and

northwestern part of the island. The inner reef area extend up to southwest and southern

part of the island. The reef area covered approximately 45% of the total intertidal area,

whereas the mudflats and mangroves together covered 55% of the total intertidal area. The

reef is a typical intertidal fringing type of reef, consisting of reef flat, reef crest and reef

slope. The reef slope gets exposed only during the minus (negative) tides. The intertidal

reef flat was dominated by shallow water logged pools. Growth of encrusting corals was

observed on the inner margins of the pool. From December to April, these tidal pools and

the reef crest showed hyper dominance of the algae, especially of Sargassum spp. Healthy

live corals were observed on the northern crest of the reef, where the submerged light

house is situated, while the north-western reef had low coral cover compared to the

northern reef of the site.

Species Richness (Table 5.1)

Of the total 258 quadrats laid on Pirotan island, in the upper strata i.e. reef flat, live

corals occurred in 47% quadrats. While, in lower strata 78% quadrats recorded live corals.

Thus, average frequency of live corals in the study location was 62 percent.

Within the sampled area, total 18 species of hard corals were recorded, of which 11

were present on the Upper strata while 16 were recorded from the Lower strata. The

Jaccard’s species similarity index between these two strata was 0.5. Only one species

48 | P a g e
Parycyathus stokessi was recorded outside the sampling area, agreegating the total

richness to 19 species.

Table 5.1: A comparison of habitat characteristics and coral community between the
upper and lower strata of the reef at Pirotan island

Sr. No. Parameters Upper Lower Average / Total

1 Total quadrats laid 96 162 258
Quadrats with presence of Live
2 Coral 45 127 172
3 Frequency of occurrence (%) 46.87 78.39 62.63
Species Richness (within the sampled
4 area) 11 16 18
Additional species (outside the
5 sampled area) 1
6 Total Species Richness 19
7 Jaccard's similarity Index 0.5
Probality value of t - Test of Live
8 corals between two strata **0.001
9 Benthic cover of Live Coral area (%) 10.2 18.3 14.3
10 Benthic cover of Algae (%) 24.1 32.5 28.3
11 Benthic cover of Mud (%) 1.5 0.2 0.8
12 Benthic cover of Sand (%) 21.3 16.6 18.9
13 Benthic cover of Rock (%) 35.3 23.3 29.3
14 Benthic cover of Rubble (%) 7.5 8.1 7.8
15 Benthic cover of Other fauna (%) 0.1 1.0 0.5
** Highly significant

Benthic Cover (Table 5.1, Fig 5.1)

Seven parameters were considered for the benthic coverage in the quadrats for both

the upper and the lower strata.

At Pirotan average live coral cover was 14.3%. The live coral coverage in the lower

strata 18.3% was significantly higher than upper strata (10.2%) (P <0.01, df = 267).

32.5% algal cover was noted in the lower strata, compared to 24.1% in the upper

strata. Presence of mud was negligible both on the upper strata (1.5%), and lower strata

(0.2%), while sand coverage was 21.3% in the upper strata, compared to 16.6% in the

lower strata. Coverage of rock was numerically high in the upper strata (35.3%) than the

49 | P a g e
lower strata (23.3%), while benthic coverage of rubbles showed negligible difference

between the upper (7.5%) and lower strata (8.1%). Associated sedentary fauna such as Sea

anemone (Stichodactyla haddoni) and Zooanthus (Polythoa sp.) (Chapter 6) covered 1% of

the benthic substrate in the lower strata compared to very low coverage in upper strata

(0.1%).

Fig: 5.1: Benthic Cover (% ± SEM) of upper and lower strata at Pirotan

45.0

40.0

35.0

30.0
Benthic coverage (%)

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0

‐5.0 Live Coral Algae Mud Sand Rock Rubble Other

fauna
Benthic cover classes
‐10.0
Upper Lower

Relative Frequency of occurrence of hard coral species at Pirotan (Table 5.2, Fig 5.2)

Favia speciosa was the most frequently occurring species with relative frequency of

41% followed by Porites lutea (27%) and Favia favus (22%). These were followed by two

species of Favites viz. Favites sp. (15%) and Favites bastae (11%). Nine species viz.

Pseudosiderestrea tayami, Leptastrea purpuria, Platygyra lamelina, Montipora venosa,

Goniopora nigra, Goniastrea pectinata, Cyphastrea serralia, Coscinarea monile and

Acanthastrea hillae showed very low occurrence.

50 | P a g e
Table 5.2: Relative Frequency of hard coral species at Pirotan

Sr. No. Species Relative frequency (%)

1 Acanthastrea hillae 1.2
2 Coscinarea monile 0.6
3 Cyphastrea seralia 2.3
4 Favia favus 21.5
5 Favia speciosa 40.7
6 Favites sp.2 14.5
7 Favites bastae 11.0
8 Goniastrea pectinata 1.7
9 Goniopora minor 4.1
10 Goniopora nigra 1.7
11 Montipora venosa 1.2
12 Platygyra lamelina 2.3
13 Porites lutea 26.7
14 Porites solida 12.2
15 Leptastrea purpuria 0.6
16 Siderastrea savigyna 5.8
17 Symphilia recta 3.5
18 Pseudosiderastrea tayami 0.6

Fig: 5.2: Relative Frequency (%) of hard coral species at Pirotan

Pseudosiderastrea tayami
Symphilia recta
siderastrea savigyna
Leptastrea purpuria
Porites solida
Porites lutea
Platygyra lamelina
Montipora venosa
Species

Goniopora nigra
Goniopora minor
Goniastrea pectinata
Favites bastae
Favites sp.
Favia speciosa
Favia favus
Cyphastrea seralia
Coscinarea monile
Acanthastrea hillae

0 10 20 30 40 50
Relative frequency (%)

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 Pirotan

Colour Code Color/catagory Area (sq mtr)

1. Algal ridge 894553.4

2. Outer Reef 1145773.7

3. Inner Reef 5021504.8

4. Sandy beach 281114.0

5. Mangroves 409555.2

6. Intertidal mudflats 3985837.0

7. Island 0.0

8. Reef vegetation 0.0

9. High tidal mudflats 0.0

10. Sandy reef 0.0

11. Coral Pinnacle 0.0

12. Muddy reef 1892374.6

13. Salt Pan 0.0

Total Area (Square meter) 13630712.6

Goose Reef

Habitat Profile (Map 5.2)

Goose is a submerged reef, devoid of any hightidal land class and gets exposed

only during low tides. The reef is situatued just opposite Sikka, between the jetties of

GSFC and Reliance Industries. The shape of the reef is oval and has two central patches of

sand. Though being submerged during high tide, the reef has the geomorphological

characteristics of the fringing type of reefs, having reef flat (upper strata) on the leeward

side and reef crest and reef slope (lower strata) on the seaward side. Major land cover

classes were Algal ridge, Outer reef, Inner reef, Sandy beach, Reef vegetation and muddy

reef. The outer strata consist of two classes i.e. Algal ridge and the outer reef. These two

classes together covered 17% area of the total reef. While inner reef (upper strata)

consisted of 52% of the total intertidal habitats. The total intertidal area of the reef was

9139327 m2 (Map 5.2).

Species Richness (Table 5.3)

Out of 274 quadrats laid on the reef, in the upper strata, 77% quadrats had live

corals. Frequency of occurrence of live corals of lower strata (78%) was at par with that of

upper strata (77%).

Within the sampled area, 17 species of hard corals were recorded, of which 16 were

present on the lower strata and 14 on upper strata. The Jaccard’s species similarity index

between these two strata was 0.76. Only one species Parycyathus stokessi was recorded

outside the sampling area, aggregating the total Species richness to 18 species.

52 | P a g e
Table: 5.3: A comparison of habitat characteristics and coral community between the
upper and lower strata at Goose Reef
Sr. No. Parameters Upper Lower Average / Total
1 Total quadrats laid 112 162 274
Quadrats with presence of Live
2 Coral 86 127 213
3 Frequency of occurrence 76.7 78.4 77.6
Species Richness (within the
4 sampled area) 16 14 17
Additional species (outside the
5 sampled area) 1
6 Total Species Richness 18
7 Jaccard’s Similarity Index 0.76
Probality value of t - Test of Live
8 corals between two strata **0.001
9 Benthic cover of Live Coral (%) 6.6 37.4 22.0
10 Benthic cover of Algae (%) 5.6 10.2 7.9
11 Benthic cover of Mud (%) 34.2 19.3 26.8
12 Benthic cover of Sand (%) 19.4 7.2 13.3
13 Benthic cover of Rock (%) 10.3 15.5 12.9
14 Benthic cover of Rubble (%) 18.5 10.2 14.3
15 Benthic cover of Other fauna (%) 5.3 0.1 2.7
** Highly Significant

Benthic Cover (Table 5.3 Fig 5.3)

The average live coral cover at Goose reef was 22%. The live coral coverage of lower

strata (37.4%) was significantly high compared to upper strata (6.6%) (P < 0.01, df = 273).

The algal coverage in the lower strata was 10.2% compared to 5.6% of the lower strata.

The deposition of mud was numerically high in the upper strata (34.2%) compared to the

lower strata (19.3%). Sand cover was also numerically recorded high in the upper strata

(19.4) than the lower strata (7.2) while coverage of rock was higher in lower strata (15.5%)

compared to lower strata (10.3%). Other associates, Polythoa spp. showed significant

coverage (5%) in the upper strata.

53 | P a g e
 Fig: 5.3: Benthic Cover (% ± SEM) of upper and lower strata at Goose

50.0

40.0
Benthic coverage (%)

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
Live Coral Algae Mud Sand Rock Rubble Other
fauna
‐10.0
Benthic cover classes

Upper strata Lower strata

Relative Frequency of occurrence of hard coral species at Goose (Table 5.4 Fig 5.4)

At Goose reef also Favia speciosa was found to be the most frequently occurring

species with relative frequency of 51%. This was followed by Favitess sp2 and Goniopora

minor with relative frequency of 27 and 22 respectively. Symphillia recta, and Favia favus

showed equal relative frequency i.e. 14% each. While Leptastrea purpuria, Goniastrea

pectinata, Mycedium elephantosis, Coscinarea monile and Acanthastrea hillae showed

very low occurrence (Fig 5.4).

Table: 5.4: Relative Frequency of Occurrence of coral species (in %) at Goose reef
Sr. No. Species Relative Frequency (%)
1 Acanthastrea hillae 1.9
2 Coscinarea monile 1.4
3 Cyphastrea serralia 4.7
4 Favia speciosa 51.2
5 Favia favus 13.7
6 Favites sp. 2 27.0
7 Goniopora minor 22.3
8 Goniastrea pectinata 1.4

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 9 Leptastrea purpuria 0.9
10 Montipora foliosa 11.4
11 Mycedium elephantosis 1.4
12 Platygyra lamellina 6.6
13 Pseudosiderestrea tayami 3.8
14 Porites lutea 8.5
15 Porites compressa 3.8
16 Siderestrea savigyna 2.8
17 Sympillia recta 13.7

Fig: 5.4: Relative Frequency of Occurrence of coral species (in %) at Goose reef

Sympillia recta
Siderestrea savigyna
Porites compressa
Porites lutea
Pseudosiderestrea tayami
Platygyra lamellina
Mycedium elephantosis
Montipora foliosa
Species

Leptastrea purpuria
Goniastrea pectinata
Goniopora minor
Favites sp.
Favia favus
Favia speciosa
Cyphastrea serralia
Coscinarea monile
Acanthastrea hillae

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Relative Frequency (%)

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 Goose

Colour Code Colour/catagory Area (sq mtr)

1. Algal ridge 826946.7

2. Outer Reef 706517.9

3. Inner Reef 4809035.8

4. Sandy beach 691572.1

5. Mangroves 0

6. Intertidal mudflats 1520049.6

7. Island 0

8. Reef vegetation 585205.2

9. High tidal mudflats 0

10. Sandy reef 0

11. Coral Pinnacle 0

12. Muddy reef 0

13. Salt Pan 0

Total Area (Square meter)

9139327.5
Narara

Habitat Profile (Map 5.3)

Narara was once considered as an island and hence still pronounced as beyt (i.e. an

island). Due to the development of saltworks and other human activities, it is now well

connected with the main land. The intertidal reef area of the site is one of the largest

amongst such areas in Gulf of Kachchh. The site has typical intertidal fringing reef that

can be divided in to reef flat, reef crest and reef slope. The live corals in the reef were

found sparsely at the junction of reef flat and reef slope to the seaward margins of the reef

slope. However, the concentration of live corals was observed in some parts of the eastern,

northern and western edges of the reef crest. Total nine land cover classes were observed

at Narara reef. Saltpans covered maximum 89.2 km2 area. The Lower strata, consisting of

algal ridge and outer reef consisted of 17% of the intertidal areas, whereas the inner reef

and sandy reef together covered 9% of the total intertidal area. Due to the dredging of the

reef for laying pipeline for the transport of crude oil, several dead coral skeletons can be

found on the upper intertidal areas. Such boulders were found to be as huge as two to three

meters in circumference. The major intertidal habitat classes at Narara were coral reef,

mudflats, intertidal sand floors, sandy beaches and mangroves.

Species Richness (Table 5.5 Fig 5.5)

In the upper strata i.e. reef flat, live corals occurred in 32% quadrats, while the

lower strata 39% quadrats recorded live coral. Hence the average frequency of occurrence

of live corals on the Narara was 36.15%.

Within the sampled area 19 species of hard corals were recorded, of which 15 were

present on the upper strata and 11 were recorded from lower strata. The Jaccard’s species

similarity index between these two strata was 0.44. Only one species Parycyathus stokessi

was recorded outside the sampling area, making the total species richness of 20 species.

56 | P a g e
 Table 5.5: A comparison of habitat characteristics and coral community between the
upper and lower strata of the reef at Narara
Sr. No. Upper
Parameters Strata Lower strata Total / Average
1 Total quadrats laid 289 175 464
2 Quadrats with presence of Live
Coral 95 69 164
3 Frequency of occurrence 32.87 39.43 36.15
4 Species Richness (within the
sampled area) 15 11 19
5 Additional species (outside the
sampled area) 1
6 Total Species Richness 20
7 Jaccard’s Similarity Index 0.44
8 Probality value of t - Test of Live
corals between two strata 0.0018**
9 Benthic cover of Live Coral (%) 2.17 4.85 3.51
10 Benthic cover of Algae (%) 29.57 33.68 31.625
11 Benthic cover of Mud (%) 4.6 1.1 2.85
12 Benthic cover of Sand (%) 17 2.4 9.7
13 Benthic cover of Rock (%) 34 43 38.5
14 Benthic cover of Rubble (%) 11.1 14.4 12.75
15 Benthic cover of Other fauna (%) 1 1.03 1.015
** Highly Significant

Benthic Cover (Table 5.5 Fig 5.5)

Seven Parameters were recorded for the benthic coverage in the quadrats for both

upper and lower strata at Narara.

Average live coral cover percentage at Narara was 3.51% lowest amongst the 6

studied locations. The coral cover of the lower strata though low, (4.85%), was

significantly different than that of upper strata (2.17%) (P < 0.01, df = 463). Algal cover

marginally differed with 33.68% in lower strata and 29.57 % in the upper strata. Rock

coverage dominated the lower strata with 43% compared to 34% of the upper strata.

Rubbles were having almost similar coverage 11.1% in the upper strata and 14.4% in the

lower strata.

57 | P a g e
Fig 5.5: Benthic Cover (% ± SEM) of upper and lower strata at Narara

60

50

40
Benthic cover (%)

30

20

10

0
% LC % Algae % Mud % Sand % Rock % Rubble %
‐10 Associate
Benthic Classes

Relative Frequency of occurrence of hard coral species at Narara (Table 5.6 Fig 5.6)

Favia favus, was the most frequently occurring species with relative frequency of

37.8%. Favia specieosa and two species of Favites were found to be frequently occurring

species with relative frequency of 17.7, 13.4 and 11.6% respectively. These were followed

by Porites lutea with relative frequency of 9.8%. Seven species viz. Turbinaria peltata,

Goniopora minor, Symphillia recta, Porites hispida, Montipora foliosa, Montipora venosa

and Acanthastrea hillae showed very low occurrence.

Table 5.6: Relative Frequency of Occurrence of hard coral species (in %) at Narara

Sr. No. Species Relative frequency (%)

1 Acanthastrea hillae 1.2
2 Cyphastrea serralia 9.1
3 Favia favus 37.8
4 Favia speciosa 17.7
5 Favites sp.1 11.6
6 Favites sp.2 13.4
7 Goniastrea pectinata 6.1
8 Leptastrea purpuria 2.4
9 Montipora venosa 0.6
10 Montipora foliosa 0.6

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 11 Platygyra sinensis 4.9
12 Porites lutea 9.8
13 Porites solida 3.0
14 Porites hipsida 0.6
15 Pseudosiderestrea tayami 4.9
16 Siderestrea savigyna 4.3
17 Symhillia recta 0.6
18 Goniopora minor 0.6
19 Turbinarea peltata 0.6

Fig: 5.6: Relative Frequency of Occurrence of coral species (in %) at Narara

Turbinarea peltata
Goniopora minor
Symhillia recta
Siderestrea savigyna
Pseudosiderestrea tayami
Porites hipsida
Porites solida
Porites lutea
Platygyra sinensis
Species

Montipora foliosa
Montipora venosa
Leptastrea purpuria
Goniastrea pectinata
Favites sp 2.
Favites sp1.
Favia speciosa
Favia favus
Cyphastrea serralia
Acanthastrea hillae

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0

Relative Frequency

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 Narara

Colour Code Colour/catagory Area (sq mtr)

1. Algal ridge 2290245.2

2. Outer Reef 8948976.7

3. Inner Reef 6552632.0

4. Sandy beach 312286.8

5. Mangroves 8904324.5

6. Intertidal mudflats 20210809.8

7. Island 0
8. Reef vegetation 0

9. High tidal mudflats 0

10. Sandy reef 5052361.3

11. Coral Pinnacle 339771.6

12. Muddy reef 0

13. Salt Pan 8926562.4

Total Area (Square meter) 61537970.4

Kalubhar

Habitat Profile (Map 5.4)

Kalubhar is one of the largest island having a total area of 68.67 km2 including the

inter-tidal areas. It is diamond shaped, with very close approach to the Vadinar Port and

Essar Jetty. Total nine land cover classes were recorded on this island. They are Algal

ridge, Outer reef, Inner reef, Sandy beach, Mangroves, Intertidal mudflats, Island,

Hightidal mudflats and Sandy reef. The southern inter-tidal area is heavily dominated by

mudflats covering an area of 231.75 km2. The reef is situated at the northern side of the

island, having 4073422 m2 area as outer reef and 4804775 m2 as inner reef. The lower

strata comprised of algal ridge and outer reef consisted of 8% of the intertidal area.

Whereas the upper strata comprised of inner reef covered 6.9% of the total intertidal area.

Species Richness (Table 5.7 Fig 5.7)

Live corals were recorded in 50% of the quadrats of the upper strata, and 60% of

quadtrates in lower strata.

Within the sampled area 21 species of hard corals were recorded, of which 11 were

present in the upper strata and 16 in the lower strata. Three species were confined to the

reef flat only whereas five species were confined to slope and crest. Two species viz. Favia

pallida and Parycyathus stokessi were recorded outside the sampled area, hence the total

coral species richness at Kalubhar was 23 species. The Jaccard’s species similarity index

between these two strata was 0.42 (Table 5.7).

60 | P a g e
Table: 5.7: A comparison of habitat characteristics and coral community between the
upper and lower strata of the reef at Kalubhar island
Sr. No. Upper Lower Total /
Parameters Strata strata Average
1 Total quadrats laid 348 332 680
2 Quadrats with presence of Live
Coral 174 208 382
3 Frequency of Occurrence (%) 50 60 56
4 Species Richness (within the
sampled area) 11 16 21
5 Additional species (outside the 2
sampled area)
6 Total Species Richness 23
7 Jaccard's Similarity Index 0.42
8 Probality value of t Test of Live
corals between two strata 0.0018**
9 Benthic cover of Live Coral (%) 11.31 23.28 17.30
10 Benthic cover of Algae (%) 49.61 42.87 46.24
11 Benthic cover of Mud (%) 0.51 1 0.76
12 Benthic cover of Sand (%) 15.19 4.98 10.09
13 Benthic cover of Rock (%) 17.34 25 21.17
14 Benthic cover of Rubble (%) 5.53 2.89 4.21
15 Benthic cover of Associate (%) 0.47 0 0.24
** Highly Significant

Benthic Cover (Table 5.7 Fig 5.7)

Total 7 Parameters were recorded for the benthic coverage in the quadrats for both

upper and lower strata at Kalubhar.

The average live coral cover was 17. 3%, with percent coverage of the lower strata

(23.28%) significantly higher than the upper strata (11.31%) (P<0.01, df = 679). The most

dominant benthic cover class was algae, covering 49% in the upper strata and 42.87% in

the lower strata. Coverage of rocks was 25% in the lower strata and 17.34% in the upper

strata, while rubble cover was 5.53% in the upper strata compared to 2.89% in the lower

strata. Sand coverage was numerically high 15.19% compared to 4.98% of lower strata.

61 | P a g e
 Fig: 5.7: Benthic Cover (% ± SEM) of upper and lower strata at Kalubhar
60

50

40
Benthic coverage (%)

30

20

10

0
% LC % Algae % Mud % Sand % Rock % Rubble %
‐10 Associate
Benthic classes

Upper Strata Lower Strata

Relative Frequency of Occurrence of hard corals at Kalubhar (Table 5.8 Fig 5.8)

At Kalubhar Porites lutea was the most frequently occurring species with relative

frequency of 25.4%. This was followed by two different species Favites spp1 and Favites

spp2. with relative frequency of 20.4% and 19.6% respectively. Mycedium elephantosis,

Coscinarea monile and Acanthastrea hillae showed very low relative frequency i.e. below

1%.

Table 5.8: Relative Frequency of coral species (in %) at Kalubhar

Sr. No. Species Relative frequency (%)

1 Acanthastrea hillae 0.5
2 Coscinarea monile 0.8
3 Cyphastrea serralia 4.2
4 Favia speciosa 16.2
5 Favia favus 9.7
6 Montipora foliosa 18.3
7 Montipora hispida 5.5
8 Favites sp 1 19.6
9 Favites sp 2 20.4
10 Goniastrea pectinata 2.4

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 11 Goniopora minor 18.6
12 Leptastrea purpuria 1.0
13 Mycedium elephantosis 0.5
14 Platygyra lamellina 5.2
15 Porites lutea 25.4
16 Porites compressa 6.5
17 Porites solida 2.6
18 Pseudosiderestrea tayami 3.4
19 Siderestrea savigyna 1.3
20 Symphillia recta 6.3
21 Turbinaria peltata 2.6

Fig: 5.8: Relative Frequency of coral species (in %) at Kalubhar

Turbinaria peltata
Symphillia recta
Siderestrea savigyna
Pseudosiderestrea tayami
Porites solida
Porites compressa
Porites lutea
Platygyra lamellina
Mycedium elephantosis
Leptastrea purpuria
Goniopora minor
Goniastrea pectinata
Favites sp2
Favites sp1
Montipora hispida
Montipora foliosa
Favia favus
Favia speciosa
Cyphastrea serralia
Coscinarea monile
Acanthastrea hillae

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0

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 Kalubhar
N

Colour Code Colour/catagory Area (sq mtr)

1. Algal ridge 1211905.0

2. Outer Reef 4073422.4

3. Inner Reef 4804775.2

4. Sandy beach 971406.8

5. Mangroves 11924662.8

6. Intertidal mudflats 23175821.7

7. Island 114877.0

8. Reef vegetation 0

9. High tidal mudflats 11135588.4

10. Sandy reef 11267248.9

11. Coral Pinnacle 0

12. Muddy reef 0

13. Salt Pan 0

Total Area (Square meter) 68679708.3

Poshitra

Habitat Profile (Map 5.5)

Poshitra cluster has more than 16 offshore locations and two coastal locations,

where coral growth has been reported. The study site is one of the coastal locations also

known as Laku point. Total area of Poshitra point (Poshitra and Asaba Pir together) is

1205766.4 m2. Here total six land cover classes were recorded. The reef area including

vegetation was 830209.4 m2, which is 68% of the total intertidal area. The intertidal area

was rocky with very negligible mud deposition. There was no significant sandy beach near

the high tide line. Unlike other fringing reefs, it was difficult to divide the site into reef

edge reef crest and reef slope, as the area is completely unequal undulating, with shallow

water tidal pools. The coral growth was observed from back water shallow tidal pools to

the near shore waters. Major intertidal habitats were reef vegetation, muddy reef, sandy

reef and outer reef. Heavy plantation by MNP and S authorities was observed near the

back water pools.

Species Richness (Table 5.9 Fig 5.9)

Total 90% of quadrats showed presence of live corals in the upper strata, compared

to 97% in the lower strata.

Within the sampled area of lower strata and upper strata, 22 species of hard corals

were recorded, of which 15 were present on the upper strata and 22 were recorded from

lower strata. Seven species were confined only to the lower strata, while four species viz.

Plesiastrea versipora, Parycyathus stokessi, Polycyathus verrilli and Tubastrea aurea

were recorded outside the sampled area. Hence, the total hard coral species richness of the

Poshitra was 26 species. The Jaccard’s species similarity index between these two strata

was 0.23 only.

64 | P a g e
Table 5.9: A comparison of habitat characteristics and coral community between the
upper and lower strata of the reef at Poshitra

Parameters Upper Lower Average / Total

1 Total quadrats laid 51 39 90
Quadrats with presence of Live
2 Coral 46 38 84
3 Frequency of occurrence 90 97 93.8
Species Richness (within the
4 sampled area) 15 22 22
Additional species (outside the
5 sampled area) 4
6 Total Species Richness 26
7 Jaccard’s Similarity Index 0.23
8 Benthic cover of Live corals (%) 18.7 64.5 41.6
9 Benthic cover of Algae (%) 14.4 3.6 9.0
10 Benthic cover of Mud (%) 4.3 0.0 2.1
11 Benthic cover of Sand (%) 7.8 6.3 7.1
12 Benthic cover of Rock (%) 40.2 20.5 30.4
13 Benthic cover of Rubble (%) 14.4 6.7 10.5
14 Benthic cover of Other fauna (%) 0.0
Probality value of t Test of Live
15 corals between two strata 0.0016**
**Highly significant

Benthic Cover at Poshitra reef (Table 5.9 Fig 5.9)

Total seven parameters were considered for the benthic coverage in the quadrats for

both upper and lower strata.

The average percentage of live coral cover was 41.6%. The live coral cover of lower

strata (64.5%) was significantly higher than that of the upper strata (18.7%) (P <0.001, df

=89). The most dominant substrate was rock covering 40%, followed by algae and rubble

covering 14% each. Sand coverage was 7% whereas mud deposition was recorded to be

4.2%.

65 | P a g e
 F 5.9: Beenthic Coveer (% ± SE
Fig: EM) of upper and low
wer strata att Poshitra reef
r

80
8
70
7
60
6
50
5
40
4
% Cover

30
3
20
2
10
1
0
‐1
10 Live Coraal Algae Mud Saand Rockk Rubble other
‐2
20 fauna
Benth
hic Class

Uppeer Strata L
Lower Strata

Relaative Frequency of Occcurrence of

o Live cora
als at Poshiitra reef (Table 5.10 Fig
F 5.10)

Turbinariaa peltata waas the most frequently occurring species

s withh relative frequency

of 299%, followeed by Porittes lutea annd Montiporra venosa with

w relativve frequency
y of 22

and 19% respeectively. Other speciees Favia sp

peciosa, Goniopora
G m
minor and Porites

comppresa were having relaative frequenncy of 16, 15

1 and 12% respectivelly. Four speecies viz.

Sympphillia rectaa, Montiporra foliosa, Turbinaria

a fronds andd Acanthasstrea hillae showed

very low occurrence <1%.

Tablle 5.10: Rellative Frequency of Occurrence

O pecies (in%) at Poshitrra
of coral sp

S No.
Sr. Species
S Relatiive Frequenncy
1 A
Acanthastreaa hillae 1.2
2 C
Coscinarea m
monile 3.7
3 F
Favia specioosa 15.7
4 F
Favia favus 9.7
5 F
Favites sp1 12.1
6 F
Favites sp2 3.6
7 G
Goniopora m
minor 14.5
8 G
Goniopora n
nigra 3.6
9 G
Goniopora sp
sp. 3.6
10 M
Montiopora venosa 19.4

66 | P a g e
 11 Montipora foliosa 1.2
12 Platygyra daedella 3.6
13 Porites lutea 21.8
14 Porites compressa 12.1
15 Porites solida 4.8
16 Pseudosiderestrea tayami 2.4
17 Siderestrea savigyna 3.6
18 Symphillia radians 4.8
19 Symphillia recta 1.2
20 Turbinaria peltata 29.1
21 Turbinariareniformis 3.6
22 Turbinaria frondes 1.2

Fig: 5.9: Relative Frequency of Occurrence of coral species (in%) at Poshitra reef

Turbinaria frondes
Turbinariareniformis
Turbinaria peltata
Symphillia recta
Symphillia radians
siderestrea savigyna
Pseudosiderestrea tayami
Porites solida
Porites compressa
Porites lutea
Species

Platygyra daedella
Montipora foliosa
Montiopora venosa
Goniopora sp.
Goniopora nigra
Goniopora minor
Favites sp2
Favites sp1
Favia favus
Favia speciosa
Coscinarea monile
Acanthastrea hillae

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0

67 | P a g e
Asaba Pir

Habitat Profile

Asaba Pir is an offshore submerged reef. It is a part of the Poshitra cluster of reefs.

The reef is inverse saucer shaped. The only intertidal habitat is coral reef. Coral growth

was observed near the fringes of the reef crest in the north-west direction and north of the

reef.

Due to the low benthic level from Mean Sea Water level compared to other

locations of the gulf, the pools are exposed for very limited number of days during the tidal

cycles. During the minus tides the reef gets exposed to a great extent and near by islands

can be approached on feet.

Species Richness

At Asaba Pir total 50.43% quadrats of lower strata recorded live corals, whereas in

the upper strata, 47.78% quadrats recorded live corals.

Within the sampled area 14 species of hard corals were recorded, of which 10 were

present on the reef flat and all the 14 were recorded from reef slope and reef crest. Four

species were confined to the reef slope and crest only. However fourteen species were

recorded outside the sampled area, hence the total species richness of the location was 28

species. The Jaccard’s species similarity index between these two strata was 0.71.

68 | P a g e
Table 5.11: A comparison of habitat characteristics and coral community between
the upper and lower strata of the reef at Asaba Pir Reef
Upper Lower
Sr. No. Parameters Strata strata Total
1 Total quadrats laid 90 115 205
2 Quadrats with presence of Live Coral 43 58 101
3 Frequency of occurrence 47.78 50.43 49.11
Species Richness (within the sampled
4 area) 10 14 14
Additional species (outside the
5 sampled area) 14
6 Total Species Richness 28
7 Jaccard’s Similarity Index 0.71
8 Benthic cover of Live corals (%) 22 50 36
9 Benthic cover of Algae (%) 29.85 10.91 20.38
10 Benthic cover of Mud (%) 0.5 0 0.25
11 Benthic cover of Sand (%) 21.87 9.76 15.815
12 Benthic cover of Rock (%) 31.66 51.37 20
13 Benthic cover of Rubble (%) 12.41 9.24 10.825
14 Benthic cover of Other fauna (%) 0 0 0
Probality value of T Test of Live corals
15 between two strata 0.0015**
** Highly significant

Benthic Cover (Table 5.11 Fig 5.11)

Seven Parameters were considered for the benthic coverage in the quadrats for both

upper and lower strata.

Total percentage of live coral cover of lower strata (50%) was significantly high than

the upper strata (22%) ( P<0.001, df = 204). The most dominant substrate was rock with

50% cover in the lower strata and 31.66% in the upper strata. Algal cover was 10.91% in

the lower strata and 29.85% in the upper strata, sand coverage was 21.87% in the upper

strata compared to 9.76% in the lower strata, while rubble coverage was 12.41% in the

upper strata compared to 9.24% in the lower strata.

69 | P a g e
 Fig: 5.12: % Benthic Cover at Asaba Pir in upper and lower strata

70
60
Benthic cover (%) 50
40
30
20
10
0
‐10 % LC % Algae % Mud % Sand % Rock % Rubble
‐20
Benthic classes

Upper strata Lower strata

Relative Frequency of hard corals at Asaba Pir (Table 5.12 Fig 5.12)

Montipora venosa, Favites complanata and Favia favus were found to be frequently

occurring species with relative frequency of 23, 19 and 12% respectively. These were

followed by Montipora foliosa, Porites lutea and Favia speciosa with relative frequency

of 9, 8 and 7% respectively. Two species viz. Turbinaria peltata and Symphillia radians

showed very low occurrence.

Table 5.12 Relative Frequency of Occurrence of coral species (in%) at Asaba Pir

Sr. No. Species Relative frequency

1 Acanthastrea hillae 2.0
2 Favia favus 11.9
3 Favia speciosa 8.4
4 Favites complanata 21.7
5 Favites bastae 7.2
6 Siderastrea savigyana 2.4
7 Porites solida 3.6
8 Porites lutea 9.6
9 Goniopora minor 4.8
10 Montipora venosa 26.5
11 Montipora foliosa 10.8
12 Symphillia recta 2.4
13 Symphillia radians 1.2
14 Turbinaria peltata 1.2

70 | P a g e
fig: 5.12: Relative Frequency of Occurrence of coral species (in%) at Asaba Pir

Turbinaria peltata

Symphillia radians

Symphillia recta

Montipora foliosa

Montipora venosa

Goniopora minor

Porites lutea
Species

Porites solida

Siderastrea savigyana

Favites bastae

Favites complanata

Favia speciosa

Favia favus

Acanthastrea hillae

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0

Relative frequency (%)

71 | P a g e
 Poshitra and AsabaPir

Colour Code Colour/catagory Area (sq mtr)

1. Algal ridge 0

2. Outer Reef 476504

3. Inner Reef 0

4. Sandy beach 0

5. Mangroves 0

6. Intertidal mudflats 89265.0

7. Island 286290.8

8. Reef vegetation 281487.7

9. High tidal mudflats 0

10. Sandy reef 20166

11. Coral Pinnacle 0

12. Muddy reef 52051.7

13. Salt Pan 0

Total Area (Square meter) 1205766.4

COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF SIX STUDY LOCATION

Sampling area and frequency of occurrence (Fig: 5.13)

In the study area altogether 62% quadrats showed occurrence of live corals.

Poshitra showed highest frequency of live corals (98%), followed by Goose reef (78%),

whereas lowest frequency of occurrence was encountered at Narara coastal reef (36%).

Fig: 5.13: Frequency of occerence of live corals at six study locations

120
Frequency of occurrence (%)

100

80

60

40

20

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
Locations

Frequency

Species Richness (Fig 5.14, Table 5.14)

The scleractinian species richness in the study area was 38 species belonging to 20

genera. Favites and Porites contributed maximum 4 species each in the total species

richness while 11 genera contributed single species each with other contributing 3 or 2

species. Maximum species i.e. 28 were recorded at Asaba Pir the western most reef,

whereas minimum 18 species at Goose reef. Nine species viz. Acanthastrea hillae, Favia

speciosa, Favia favus, Goniopora minor, Porites lutea, Siderestrea savigyna,

Pseudosiderastrea tayami, Symphilia recta and Parycyathus stokessi were recorded from

all six locations with good frequeny of occurrence. Whereas seven species viz. Favites

complanata, Montipora hispida, Platygyra sinensis, Porites hispida, Turbinaria frondes,

Polycyathus verrilli and Barabattoia amicorum were confined to any single location and

72 | P a g e
that also with very low frequency of occurrence. Five species Platygyra daedella,

Plesiastrea verscipora, Symphillia radians, Turbinaria reniformes and Tubastrea aurea

were confined to Poshitra and Asaba Pir only. With Turbinaria frondes and Polycyathus

verrili recorded only from Poshitra and Barabattoia amicorum recorded only from Asaba

Pir.

Similarity Index (Table 5.13)

When Jaccard’s species similarity index was performed, similarities between the

eastern and centrally located reefs viz. Pirotan, Goose, Narara and Kalubhar showed

greater similarities, and western locations, viz. Poshitra and Asaba Pir showed greater

similarity between the two. Goose and Kalubhar showed maximum similarity in the

species richness (J = 0.78), followed by Poshitra and Asaba Pir (J =0.69). Lowest

similarity was recorded between Narara and Asaba Pir (J = 0.41) and between Poshitra

and Goose (J = 0.42).

Table 5.13: Jaccard’s species similarity index

Asaba
Locations Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra Pir
Pirotan 1 0.6 0.63 0.62 0.50 0.47
Goose 1 0.58 0.78 0.42 0.44
Narara 1 0.65 0.48 0.41
Kalubhar 1 0.48 0.5
Poshitra 1 0.69
Asaba Pir 1

73 | P a g e
Fig: 5.14: Contribution of genera in the species richness recorded during the study

Acanthastrea, 1 Coscinarea, 1
Cyphastrea, 1
Goniastrea, 1 Leptastrea, 1
Porites, 4
Mycedium, 1
Pseudosiderestrea, 1
Favites, 4
siderestrea, 1
Barabattoia, 1
Turbinaria, 3 Plesiastrea, 1
Tubastrea, 1
Platygyra, 3 Favia, 2

Symphillia, 2
Montiopora, 3
Parycyathus, 2
Goniopora , 3

Fig: 5.15: Species Richness of hard corals at six study locations

30 28
26
25 23
20
19
20 18
No. of Species

15

10

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
Location

Species Richness

74 | P a g e
 Table: 5.14: Species Richness of hard corals at study locations (Plate 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4)

Sr.
no. Species Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra Asaba Pir
1 Acanthastrea hillae * * * * * *
2 Coscinarea monile * * - * * *
3 Cyphastrea seralia * * * * - *
4 Favia speciosa * * * * * *
5 Favia pallida - - - * - *
6 Favia favus * * * * * *
7 Favites sp1. * * * * * -
8 Favites sp2. * - * * * -
9 Favites complanata - - - - - *
10 Favites bastae * - - - - *
11 Goniopora minor * * * * * *
12 Goniopora nigra * - - - * *
13 Goniopora sp. - - - - * *
14 Goniastrea pectinata - * * * - -
15 Leptastrea purpuria * * * * - -
16 Montiopora venosa * - * - * *
17 Montipora foliosa - * * * * *
18 Montipora hispida - - - * - -
19 Mycedium elephantosis - * - * - *
20 Platygyra daedella - - - - * *
21 Platygyra lamelina * * - * - -
22 Platygyra sinensis - - * - - -
23 Porites lutea * * * * * *
24 Porites compressa - * - * * *
25 Porites solida * - * * * *
26 Porites hipsida - - * - - -
27 Pseudosiderestrea tayami * * * * * *
28 Plesiastrea versipora - - - - * *
29 Siderestrea savigyna * * * * * *
30 Symphillia radians - - - - * *
31 Symphillia recta * * * * * *
32 Turbinaria peltata - - * * * *
33 Turbinaria reniformis - - - - * *
34 Turbinaria frondes - - - - * -
35 Parycyathus stokessi * * * * * *
36 Polycyathus verrilli - - - - * -
37 Tubastrea aurea - - - - * *
38 Barabattoia amicorum - - - - - *
Total 19 18 20 23 26 28

75 | P a g e
Comparitive analysis of Live coral cover of Upper strata and Lower strata

The live coral cover of the upper strata of all six locations and the live coral cover

of the lower strata of all six locations were compared and they showed significant

difference. Hence, the mean percent area of live coral cover of upper strata of six study

locations was 11.83% (SD ±7.40), significantly lower than the mean live coral cover of

lower strata (33% SD± 21.9) (P< 0.001, df = 1970). The difference between two strata

with reference to live coral cover were maximum at Poshitra followed by Asaba Pir and

Goose and minimum at Narara. Hence, further analysis of Live Corals was restricted to the

lower strata only.

Fig: 5. 16: Live coral cover (%) of both the strata at six locations in the MNP and S

80

60

40

20

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
‐20

Upper Strata Lower Strata

Frequency distribution graph (Fig. 5.17) showed that 40% quadrats were having no

live coral cover, 16% were having 1 to 10% live coral cover, whereas only 5% were

having coral cover between 90 to 100%.

76 | P a g e
Table 5.15: Frequency Distribution table of live coral cover of six locations in MNP

and S

Quadrate with Live coral Lower Strata Frequency Frequency (%) (=f*100)
cover (n) (f)
0 0.40 40
1-10 0.16 16
10-20 0.08 08
20-30 0.06 06
30-40 0.05 05
40-50 0.04 04
50-60 0.03 03
60-70 0.03 03
70-80 0.03 03
80-90 0.01 01
90-100 0.05 05

Fig: 5.17 Frequency distribution graph of live coral cover of lower strata

0.5

0.4
Frequency of
quadrates

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 25 50 75 100 125
Live Coral Cover

77 | P a g e
 One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed followed by Bonferroni’s

Multiple comparison test for the live coral cover of the lower strata of six study locations.

The result revealed that, there is a significant difference of coral cover (P<0.0001, df =

878) between Pirotan, Goose and Narara, whereas there was no significant difference in

live coral cover between Goose and Asaba Pir, Pirotan and Kalubhar and Poshitra and

Asaba Pir. This non significant difference may be attributed to the geo-morphology of the

area, as Goose and Asaba Pir both are submerged reefs and Pirotan and Kalubhar both are

islands with fringing reefs.

Table 5.16: One way Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) for live coral cover (%)

Lower
Table Analyzed Strata Bonferroni
Data Table
One-way analysis of variance
P value P<0.0001
P value summary ***
Are means significantly different ? (P
< 0.05) Yes
Number of groups 6
F 45.61
R squared 0.2071

Bartlett's test for equal variances

Bartlett's statistic (corrected) 195.6
P value P<0.0001
P value summary ***
Do the variances differ significantly ?
(P < 0.05) Yes

ANOVA Table SS df MS
Treatment (between columns) 175700 5 35130
Residual (within columns) 672500 873 770.3
Total 848200 878

78 | P a g e
 Table 5.17 Bonferroni Multiple comparison Test for six study locations for live coral

cover (%)

Bonferroni's Multiple
Mean Diff. t P value 95% CI of diff
Comparison Test
Pirotan vs Goose -19.07 5.924 P < 0.001 -28.55 to -9.596
Pirotan vs Narara 13.45 4.437 P < 0.001 4.526 to 22.37
Pirotan vs Kalubhar -4.976 1.867 P > 0.05 -12.82 to 2.870
Pirotan vs Poshitra -46.18 9.323 P < 0.001 -60.76 to -31.60
Pirotan vs Asaba Pir -28.46 5.433 P < 0.001 -43.88 to -13.04
Goose vs Narara 32.52 10.29 P < 0.001 23.22 to 41.82
Goose vs Kalubhar 14.1 5.015 P < 0.001 5.823 to 22.37
Goose vs Poshitra -27.11 5.386 P < 0.001 -41.93 to -12.30
Goose vs Asaba Pir -9.388 1.767 P > 0.05 -25.03 to 6.253
Narara vs Kalubhar -18.42 7.106 P < 0.001 -26.05 to -10.79
Narara vs Poshitra -59.63 12.13 P < 0.001 -74.10 to -45.16
Narara vs Asaba Pir -41.91 8.056 P < 0.001 -57.22 to -26.60
Kalubhar vs Poshitra -41.21 8.771 P < 0.001 -55.04 to -27.38
Kalubhar vs Asaba Pir -23.48 4.699 P < 0.001 -38.19 to -8.775
Poshitra vs Asaba Pir 17.72 2.721 P > 0.05 -1.445 to 36.89

Benthic Cover (Fig 5.18 to Fig 5.23)

Among various benthic parameters, mud deposition was significantly high on the
reef of Goose with 26.8% coverage, deposition of sand recorded at all the six locations,
which ranged from 7% to 19% with maximum 19% coverage at Pirotan. Coverage of Rock
was maximum at Narara (38.5%), followed by Poshitra (30.4%) and Pirotan (29.4%).
Maximum rubbles were recorded at Goose (14.3%) and Narara (12.75%), while minimum
at Kalubhar (4%). The coverage associated fauna is depicted in % coverage of the
sampling area i.e. quadrats. The % occupancy of associated faua is calculated based on the
coverage of the organism in the quadrat. Maximum coverage of associated sedentary fauna
though low, was recorded at Goose (2.70%) and Narara (1.0%). Whereas it was almost
absent at Poshitra and Asaba Pir. The species recorded were Polythoa spp. and
Stichodactyla haddoni,

79 | P a g e
 Table 5.18: Average benthic cover (%) at six study locations

Benthic Cover
class Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra Asaba Pir
% Live Coral 14.3 22 3.51 17.3 41.6 36
% Algae 28.3 7.9 31.625 46.24 9 20.38
% Mud 0.8 26.8 2.85 0.76 2.1 0.25
% Sand 18.9 13.3 9.7 10.09 7.1 15.815
% Rock 29.3 12.9 38.5 21.17 30.4 20
% Rubble 7.8 14.3 12.75 4.21 10.5 10.825
% Other Fauna 0.5 2.7 1.015 0.24 0 0

Fig: 5.18 Coverage of Mud at six study locations

35

30

25

20
Benthic coverage (%)

15

10

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
‐5

‐10
Locations

% Mud

80 | P a g e
 Fig: 5.19: Coverage of Sand (%) at six study locations

25

20
Benthic Coverage (%)

15

10

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
Locations

% Sand

Fig: 5.20 Coverage of Algae (%) at six study locations

60

50
Benthic Coverage (%)

40

30

20

10

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
Location

% Algae

81 | P a g e
 Fig: 5.21: Coverage of Rubbles (%) at six study locations

18

16

14
Benthic coverage (%)

12

10

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
Locations

% Rubble

Fig: 5.22: Coverage of Rocks (%) at six study locations

45

40

35
Benthic coverage (%)

30

25

20

15

10

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
Locations

% Rock

82 | P a g e
 Fig 5.23: Coverage of Other Fauna at six locations

3.5

2.5
Benthic coverage (%)

1.5

0.5

0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir
‐0.5

‐1
Locations

% Other Fauna

Table: 5.19: A comparison of reef classes of GoK studied by DOD and SAC (1997)
and current study.
DOD and SAC 1997, (Gulf Current Study (Six
of Kachchh) representative reefs)
Sr. occupancy
No. Major reef classes Area (km2) (%) Area (km2) occupancy (%)
1 Upper strata 148.4 33 21.1 30.6
2 Sandy reef 11.8 2 16.3 23.7
3 Muddy reef 117.1 26 1.9 2.7
4 Not
Lower strata Mentioned 20.6 30
5 Other classes 182.7 39 8.9 13
Total 460 68.8

Comparitive analysis was carried out for the area estimation, between the DOD and

SAC (1997) study and the current study. However, the earlier was carried out for the

whole Gulf of Kachchh, whereas the latter was confined to only six representative sites,

83 | P a g e
maximum area (%) was covered by the upper strata in the reef ecosystem, followed by

lower strata in the current study.

Maximum relative abundance was recorded of Favia speciosa with 41% at Pirotan

and 51% at Goose, the other species of Favia genus viz. F. favus was dominant at Narara

with 37.8%. However at Kalubhar, Porites lutea recorde 25.4% and at Poshitra and Asaba

Pir maximum frequency was recorded for Turbinaria peltata (29%) and Montipora venosa

(26.5%)

Fig: 5.24: Relative frequency (%) of most dominant scleractinian corals at six sites
Relative Frequency (%)

51
41 37.8
25.4 29 26.5

Favia Favia Favia favus Porites Turbinaria Montipora

speciosa speciosa Lutea peltata venosa

Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir

Locations

A comparison between the checklist of Pillai and Patel (1988) and the current study

for the four (as there are only four common sites between the two studies in the eastern and

central gulf area reveals that total 13 species are such which were recorded earlier by Pillai

and Patel (1988), are not recorded in the study even with an extensive effort (Table 5.19).

All the 13 species have abolished from Pirotan, whereas from Goose, Narara and Kalubhar

6, 1 and 3 species respectively could not be recorded.

84 | P a g e
 Table: 5.20: Comparison of Species Richness of four study locations between Pillai
and Patel (1988) and Current study (Characterise the species)
Sr. No. Scientific Name IUCN Status Pi 1 G 1 N 1 K 1
1 Acanthastrea hillae NT * * * - * - * -
2 Coscinarea monile LC * * * - - - * -
3 Cyphastrea seralia LC * * * * * * * -
4 Favia speciosa LC * * * - * - * -
5 Favia pallid LC - - - - - - * -
6 Favia favus LC * * * * * * * *
7 Favites sp1. * - * - * - * -
8 Favites sp2. * - - - * - * -
9 Favites complanata NT - * - * - - - -
10 Favites melicerum DD - * - * - - - -
11 Favites bastae NT * - - - - - - -
12 Goniopora minor NT * * * - * - * -
13 Goniopora nigra DD * * - - - - - -
14 Goniopora planulata VU - * - - - - - *
15 Goniopora sp. - - - - - - - -
16 Goniastrea pectinata LC - * * * * * * -
17 Hydnophora exesa NT - * - - - - - -
18 Leptastrea purpuria LC * - * - * - * -
19 Montiopora venosa NT * - - - * - - -
20 Montipora explanata DD - * - * - * - *
21 Montipora foliosa NT - - * - * - * -
22 Montipora hispida LC - * - - - - * -
23 Mycedium elephantosis LC - - * - - - * -
24 Platygyra daedella LC - - - - - - - -
25 Platygyra lamelina NT * - * - - - * -
26 Platygyra sinensis LC - * - * * - - -
27 Porites lutea LC * * * - * - * *
28 Porites compressa LC - * * - - - * -
29 Porites solida LC * - - - * - * -
30 Porites lichen LC - * - * - - - *
31 Porites hipsida LC - - - - * - - -
32 Pseudosiderestrea tayami NT * * * * * * * *
33 Plesiastrea versipora LC - - - - - - - -
34 Siderestrea savigyna LC * - * - * - * -
35 Symphillia radians LC - - - - - - - -
36 Symphillia recta LC * - * - * - * -
37 Turbinaria peltata VU - * - * * * * -
38 Turbinaria reniformis VU - * - - - - - -
39 Turbinaria fronds LC - - - - - - - -
40 Paracyathus stockessi DD * * * - * - * -

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 41 Polycyathus verrilli DD - * - - - - - -
42 Tubastrea aurea DD - - - - - - - -
43 Barabattoia amicorum LC - - - - - - - -

Present in Pillai and

absent in current study 13 6 1 3
Present in current study
absent in Pillai’s study 9 14 15 20
Present in both studies 10 4 5 3
1 = Pillai and Patel (1988), Pi = Pirotan, G = Goose, N = Narara, K = Kalubhar

Table: 5.21: Pearson correlation between Species richness, Frequency of occurrence

and Live coral cover

Richness Frequency Live coral cover (%)

Richness 1 0.07 0.75
Frequency 1 0.64
Live coral cover (%) 1

From Pearson correlation index (Fig 5.25 Table 5.21) it was evident that the

variations in the live coral cover is corresponding with the frequency of occurrence of live

corals and the species richness of live corals and vice versa.

Fig: 5.25 Relationship between Species Richness, Frequency and Live coral cover

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Pirotan Goose Narara Kalubhar Poshitra AsabaPir

Frequency Live Coral Cover Richness

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 Bleaching event 2010 (Table 5.21)

During the field visit of October 2010 with GEER Foundation, considerable

bleaching (approximately 90% corals were bleached) was observed at Poshitra.

Subsequently in December 2010, 55% recovery was observed and by March 2011

complete recovery was observed. No mortality was recorded due to this bleaching.

Table: 5.22: Bleaching event recorded during the study at Poshitra

Major Genera
Sr. No. Visit Month Bleaching recorded (%) % recovery
bleached
October 2010 Porites, Turbinaria,
1 90 0
Symphillia, Favia
2 December 2010 50 Porites, Favia 55
3 March 0 -- 100

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5.3 DISCUSSION
Among the four major coral reefs of India, the reefs of Andaman and Nicobar,

Lakshadweep and Gulf of Mannar are studied extensively and hence their status is known.

However comparatively very little attention had been paid to to the corals of GoK and

hence, though it is one of the four major coral reefs of India, the current status of the coral

present here is poorly known. However, all the scleractinian taxa of India including that of

Gulf of Kachchh have been categorised under schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act –

1972 by Government of India.

The coral ecosystem is one of the most threatened ecosystem in the world (Pillai,

2010). Of the total 154 km2 area covered under six study sites, the reef area was 68.8 km2,

with 20.5 km2 (33% of the reef area) area of lower strata and remaining 48.2 km2 of upper

strata. Of these 48.2 km2 sand and 11 km2 i.e. (26.4 %) mud cover in the upper strata

indicate the level of threat. Deposition of such sedimentary material may create stress to

corals, ultimately leading to their mortality (Patel, 1978; Ayling and Ayling, 1995;

Berkelmans and Oliver, 2009). As per DOD and SAC (1997) reports of the total reef area

of GoK i.e. 460 km2, 11.8 km2 reef area is under sand cover. (in the current study it has

been identified as sandy reefs) and 117 km2 as covered with mud (in the current study it

has been refered as muddy reefs). These are the critical habitats of the reef undergoing

degradation process due to sedimentation.

Looking at the habitat profile, 26.4% of the reef in the upper strata covered with

sand and mud deposition reflects the probable restriction of coral growth in the upper

strata due to sand and mud deposition as is supported by low coral species richness and

poor live coral cover (Table 5.18). In addition due to easy access, in upper strata, the

anthropogenic activities are also high threatening live corals. The low deposition of sand

and mud on lower strata can be attributed to the continuous flushing of water due to wave

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action and lesser anthropogenic disturbance due to very limited exposure period, leading to

less accessibility to the area. Majority of healthy coral growth was observed in the lower

strata (Average Live coral cover 33%) of the reef, which occupied only 30% of the total

reef area studied.

If the vegetation dominates over reef it is considered as a threat to corals. In GoK

algae remained on the reefs from November to April (Pandey, 2010). For algal growth in

the area, nutrients and the drainage system of the nearby area is important and needs to be

investigated thoroughly. The algal cover differed around reef with minimum 7.9% at

Goose to 46% at Kalubhar. This indicates that the nutrient input around each reef is

different with different drainage system on the nearest mainland. The vegetation cover is

also found to be higher in upper strata of reef on the six reefs studied. However at the most

disturbed site Narara, the vegetation cover was found to be higher in lower strata also.

Hence, these parameters in GoK may have produced some damage in the nutrient

favouring algal growth not only in the upper strata but also in the lower strata. Looking at

the habitat profile it can be said that reefs of GoK are always facing the threat due to sand,

mud and vegetation cover and needs to be controlled.

Species Richness:

Though several scientists have worked on coral taxa in GoK, the information

available on their distribution is patchy (Hornell, 1909; Patel, 1978; Pillai and Patel, 1988;

Deshmukhe et al. 2000; Venkatraman, 2003; Satyanarayana, 2009). However, of these,

only Pillai and Patel (1988), Patel (1978) and Deshmukhe et al. (2000) have given location

specific species / generic richness of the coral taxa. Till date total 59 species belonging to

27 genera of scleractinian corals have been recorded under various studies. Out of 59

species recorded in GoK 5 are listed as VULNURABLE, 16 as NEAR THREATENED

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and 8 DATA DEFICIENT (IUCN 2010). All of these studies were confined only to the

inter-tidal zone of the Gulf of Kachchh.

Most of the healthy coral growth in the GoK is confined to the lower strata i.e. reef

edge and reef slope. Such area gets exposed for a very limited period only during negative

tides, when water recedes to a greater extent. However, it might be possible that the studies

carried out till date were confined to the upper strata of reefs which gets exposed daily and

the rich lower strata was overlooked.

The 38 species belonging to 20 genera recorded during the present study, have

already been reported earlier from the Gulf of Kachchh. Though Turbinaria peltata and

Turbinaria reniformes, the VULNURABLE (IUCN 2010) species, were recorded from

Poshitra and Asaba Pir, the present study shows T. peltata to be the most frequently

occurring species at Poshitra with relative frequency of 29%. However, it was also

recorded from Narara and Kalubhar but with negligible frequency. Of the eight species

categorized as NEAR THREATENED species (IUCN 2010) viz. Acanthastrea hillae,

Favites complanata, Goniopora minor, Pseudosiderastrea tayami, Montipora

foliosa,Favites bastae, Montipora venosa and Platygyra lamaelinna, in the present study

first four were found to be well distributed on GoK reefs, while the fifth species M. foliosa

though not widely distributed was the most common species at Asaba Pir. The moderate

distribution of remaining two species (at 3 to 4 locations) but with low frequency of

occurrence indicate that the species considered as near threatened are either thriving well

or trying to sustain themselves in GoK.

There were six species viz. Platygyra daedella, Goniopora sp., Plesiastrea

versipora, Symphillia radians, Turbinaria reniformes, Tubastrea aurea confined to Asaba

Pir and Poshitra only where the turbidity was comparatively low, Dissolved Oxygen and

pH high (Chapter 7), submergence during the low tide was for longer period and

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movements of large vessels were almost nill due to its location in Poshitra bay. These two

reefs are probably the most undisturbed reefs, where more species could survive. These

species did not occur in any other location and were confined to the western parts of the

gulf. Where the conditions are still under limits and anthropogenic threats minimum. At

this point trends can still be reversible and conditions can be improved.

Pillai and Patel (1988) recorded total 37 species from sixteen locations of Gulf of

Kachchh, of which 5 species were not recorded in the present study from any of the

location. Amongst four common sites studied between Pillai and Patel (1988) and present

studies (Pirotan, Goose, Narara, Kalubhar), at least 13 species could not be recorded at

Pirotan, 6 species could not be recorded from Goose, 1 species from Narara and 3 species

from Kalubhar. These all are the locations in most disturbed area of gulf. Hence,

disappereance of some species may be correlated to the industrial development which is

known to be one of the major threat to the biodiversity of this area. Reid (1992) have

reported that biodiversity loss is increasingly impairing the accelerating loss of population

and species.

Satyanarayana (2009) has listed total 49 species of hard corals from GoK, which

include 37 species described by Pillai and Patel (1988) and 12 more species which were

not reported earlier from this area. However, Satyanarayana (2009) has not referred the

works carried out by Patel (1978; 1985) and Pillai and Patel (1988) in his book, which are

considered to be the pioneering studies for the taxonomy of corals in the GoK.

Unfortunately Satyanarayana (2009) has neither clarified the status of the 37 species listed

by Pillai and Patel (1988), nor has mentioned site lo cality of any of the species listed,

including 12 new records for the area. Out of these 12 new records, 4 are the first record

for the country by Satyanarayana (2009). Because of these sporadic records one cannot

infer distribution or actual existance or status of any of the species of corals in the GoK.

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Out of 12 new records for GoK (Satyanarayana, 2009), at least two species were recorded

in the present study viz. Barabattoia amicorum and Turbinaria frondes at Asaba Pir.

Patel (1978) described the generic diversity of corals around Poshitra, of which

four genera viz. Leptoria, Pavona, Podabacia and Pachyseris are not reported in any of the

consequent publications pertaining to corals, including his own (Patel, 1985; Pillai and

Patel, 1988). The work carried out on Sikka and Vadinar coastal coral reefs (Kundu, 2001)

recorded 16 species of corals. Out of these, Meandrina arabica and Flavellum flavum

have not been reported in any of the publications on corals of GoK, and were not recorded

during the present study also. Kundu (2001) has also mentioned that the Meandrina

arabica was dominant on the coast during his study; however the existence of genus is

confirmed but there is no evidence of the species (Veron 2000). Unfortunately he has not

claimed first record of the species from the country also. Veron (2000) has shown

occurrence of this genus from Brazil and there exist no earlier record from India. The

existence of this species needs species specific investigations. Dave (20011) has given

comprehensive account of Narara reef, recording 27 species of hard corals from Narara

reef only.

Sedimentation is reported to be a major factor influencing corals and coral

communities (Rogers, 1990; Rigel et al. 1995; Done, 2010). The naturally high rates of

sedimentation on the fringing reefs may cause considerable coral mortality. Many corals

experience high sedimentation stress throughout the year due to continuous dredging by

the port / jetty authorities to maintain ship traffic. At GoK this is observed especially in the

eastern and central part (near the study locations Pirotan, Goose, Narara and Kalubhar).

Consequently, it is difficult to specify the threshold values of sedimentation, above which

anthropogenic causes can be mitigated. Some reviews on the effects of sedimentation on

coral reefs suggest severe to catastrophic effects resulting from sedimentation rates of >50

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mg/cm2/d (Rogers 1990). The coral genera belonging to Favidae and Poritidae are able to

withstand strong wave action due to their massive or submassive growth forms and can

tolerate high levels of sedimentation (Ayling and Ayling, 1991; Berkelmans and Oliver,

1999), while the coral groups that are more susceptible to bleaching and wave impacts are

Acropora and Pocillopora corals (Wilkinson, 2008), which are not recorded from these

reefs during the present study. The past records of these species are only of dead specimen

(skeletal) (Pillai and Rajagopalan, 1979; Pillai and Patel, 1988; Styanarayana, 2009). The

reason could be due to the high silting (Pillai and Rajagopalan, 1979) considers this to be

because of high siltation.

Dead fragments of Acropora genus were recorded through out the GoK, including

six study locations. Maximum density of such fragments was observed regularly at Boria

during the field trips. The dead fragments of Acropora suggest the possibility of subtidal

reef and good generic diversity in the subtidal regions of GoK. In the other major coral

reefs of India viz. Lakshadweep, Gulf of Mannar and Andaman Nicobar, most of the

surveys have taken place in the subtidal regions only where the possibility of the coral

abundance and richness is always higher. The survival of these branching corals,

especially Acropora genus, contributes a large amount to the species richness of the

scleractinian corals of these reefs (Pillai, 2010; Balasubramaniam and Kahn, 2001).

However from the reefs of GoK, till date only 3 species of dead Acropora have been

reported. This fact lead to two hypothesis

(1) Acropora has become extinct in GoK

(2) Area having live Acropora in GoK is yet not identified, since Acropora is

known to occur in subtidal area (Veron, 2000), it could be the main reason why its live

specimens are not yet found in GoK.

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 Species of Favia genus i.e. F. speciosa and F. favus with maximum relative

frequency at Pirotan, Goose and Narara of 41, 51 and 37.8 respectively, shows

monospecific assemblages indicating greater “limits of tolerance” (Schefield’s Law of

tolerance) of the species (Fig: 5.24). These species which can adapt to a broad spectrum of

habitats along with greater limits of tolerance are known as “Generalist species” (Krebs

and Davies, 1993). The frequency of remaining species of corals were very low, indicating

their low tolerance limits towards the environmental fluctuations. Such species are called

Specialised species (Krebs and Davies, 1993). The number of such species is always high

in the given habitat (Michael, 1986). The habitats or even ecosystems dominated by single

genus / species is not a good sign of healthy ecosystem (Bawa et al. 2011).

Tolerance of these generalist coral species of GoK can be attributed to the growth

forms and the size of their corallite. F. speciosa and F. favus have massive to encrusting

growth forms whereas Porites lutea showed maximum frequency at Kalubhar during the

current study. This species has encrusting and submassive type of growth (Veron, 2000).

The massive, submassive and encrusting types of growth forms are such in shape that they

do not allow sediments to settle on the colony (Prasanna, 2008). Whereas, the folacious

growth forms of Montipora venosa are not able to avoid the settling of sediments due to

their plate like growth forms. Hence, the good presence of such coral species with

folacious or platelike growth indicates more stable environment in terms of sedimentation

and local disturbances. Turbinaria peltata frequently observed in Poshitra has tabular /

plate like or some times funnel shaped growth forms and can also adapt to average

sedimentation with changing environment (Riegl et al. 1995). The general values of Total

Suspended Matter (TSM) in the Northern and North eastern part of GoK ranges between

21 to 89 mg / l, where Kandla and Mundra ports are operational with very high vessel

traffic. However the range of TSM in southern parts having coral reefs, ranges from 15 to

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40 mg/l (Chauhan et al. 2006) which is low compared to the northern gulf but is very high

when compared to the other coral reefs of India as well as World.

However, there is no specific study which indicates, reef specific sedimentation

rates of this area, but some reports (Chauhan et al. 2006; Kunte et al. 2005) have

described the Total Suspended Matter (TSM) flow through the remote sensing techniques.

According to Chauhan et al. (2006), the GoK waters can be classified as turbid. For the

survival of a fragile ecosystem of corals with the maintenance of the navigational channels

of existing and upcoming harbours / jetties, the determination of specific sources of

turbidity, its dispersal pathways and influence on morphodynamic processes are very

crucial (Pradhan et al. 2004). It is very important to understand and monitor the dredging

processes and its disposal taking place in the gulf regardless to the distance as it adds to the

total turbidity of the gulf water.

The major source of sedimentation in GoK can be considered the Indus discharge,

which is situated about 100 km, north of the gulf, discharging about 435 million tons of

sediments annually, through the delta of 8500 km2 (Desa et al. 2005). However Nair et al.

(1982) have reported 200 million tons sediment discharge annually, which, due to the high

tidal circulations, keep on circulating in the gulf causing resuspension (Kunte et al. 2004).

Percent cover of live coral is by far the most widely used matrix of coral reef

condition and is universally used in studies that document coral reef decline and recovery

across large spatial scales (Bellwood and Huges, 2001; Pandolfi et al. 2003; Bruno and

Selig, 2007). Determining regional trends in coral cover is difficult due to the large spatial

and temporal scales involved. The variability and dynamic nature of disturbance events

that shape reef communities indicate that small scale studies can easily miss or over

represent the impact of localised disturbance events (Osborne, 2011).

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 The average live coral cover of the six locations in the gulf is 22%, which can be

considered low, compared to the other reef areas of India i.e. Lakshadweep (32% - Arthur,

2000) ( 50 to 60% - Anita Mary George, 2008), and Gulf of Mannar (33.6% - Arthur,

2000). Hoon (1997), also indicated the average live coral cover of GoK, to range between

20 to 30%. A noticable trend in live coral cover, frequency and species richness of corals

( Fig: 5.25) is observed in the present study. While moving from east to west in the gulf

these three parameters of corals showed increasing trend. Pirotan, Goose, Narara and

Kalubhar are having significantly low coral coverage and poor richness compared to

Poshitra and Asaba Pir, situated on the western extremes of the gulf. Such trend /

difference in the two zones can be due to the following reason,

(1) Exploitation of reefs for cement industry: Before the area was declared as PA, reefs

like Jindra, Pirotan, Goose, Narara and Kalubhar were given on lease to exploit the sand

and other calcium material from the reef (Patel, 1978). It is reported that 1675 tonnes

calcium sand was required for the production of 1531 tonnes of cement per day. Such

setup was functional since 1946-47 (Patel, 1985). As the coral skeleton are rich in calcium,

it might be possible that live corals also would have been exploited for the calcium

requirement of the industry along with the sand. This had also destroyed considerable

amount of mangroves from Jindra island (Patel, 1985). Narara was one of the good

nesting site for sea turtles, which was demolished completely due to the heavy exploitation

(Patel, 1985). Massive Porites one of the most important reef builder, have been removed

from Pirotan for various purposes, and very few colonies are surviving (Pillai and

Rajagopalan, 1979). In the present study, % of live coral cover recorded at Pirotan was

14.3% with relative frequency of Porites lutea to be 26.7% and Porites solida to be

12.2%.

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(2) Industrialisation: The current industrialisation taking place in the southern part of

gulf is mainly confined to the central and eastern parts of GoK. Two large oil refineries

have been established in the central and eastern part i.e. at Sikka and Vadinar (Zingde and

Anand, 1994), coal based power plant of GSECL is also operational at Sikka, a fertiliser

unit and many more small scale industries are growing on the east-central coast of the

southern GoK. Majority of these industries heavily depend on the marine water for one or

the other purpose. Further, to maintain the oil vessel traffic for the refineries, continuous

dredging is being carried out. Such activities contribute to pollution and Turbidity to the

marine waters.

(3) Human activity: The upper strata includes reef flat that gets exposed during each ebb

tide twice in a day. The resources available on the this strata can be easily accessible than

that of the lower strata, hence there is significant human movement and degradation in

the upper strata than the lower strata. As it gets exposed regularly, it is misidentified as

low coral abundance area.

While performing ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni Multiple Comparison Test,

the results revealed significant difference between Pirotan with Goose, Narara, Poshitra

Asaba Pir, significant difference between Goose and Narara, Kalubhar, and Poshitra,

Kalubhar and Poshitra and Asaba Pir. However between Pirotan and Kalubhar, Goose and

Asaba Pir, and Poshitra and Asaba Pir, there was no significant difference in the live coral

cover. This can be due to the geo morphology of the area, as Pirotan and Kalubhar both are

islands fringed with coral reefs, while Goose and Asaba Pir are the two submerged reefs

which gets exposed for a limited period of time during low tides. So it can be said that the

geomorphology of the reef is also playing important role in determining the live coral

status of that reef.

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 In the past also the reefs in the eastern and central GoK were exploited and has

suffered heavy degradation. Instead of improving the efforts for conservation, maximum

modern industrialisation is taking place in the same region, leading the eastern and the

central gulf towards heavy ecological degradation, with reference to the coral reefs. If the

condition persist for the longer duration, it is possible that major coral growth will be

confined to some parts of the western GoK only.

A major bleaching of corals was recorded worldwide in July 2010 (Krishnan et al.

2011), which was confirmed at Poshitra in October 2010 when visited with the team of

GEER Foundation – Gandhinagar (unpublished record). At Poshitra though 90% bleaching

was noted, subsequently in March 2011 visit i.e. within six months, complete recovery was

observed (Table 5.21). There was no mortality due to the bleaching of any coral colony

was recorded. Such phenomenon has been earlier studied and reported (Arthur, 2000),

which also could not record any mortality of corals due to coral bleaching in the year 1998

due to El Nino southern oscillations, stating that the coral colonies surviving in GoK are

tolerant towards the environmental fluctuations.

The average live coral cover in the GoK ranges from 3.51% at Narara to 41.6% at

Poshitra. In the present study the central gulf locations i.e. Narara has shown maximum

degradation of live corals in both upper and lower strata, followed by Goose and Pirotan in

the eastern gulf and Kalubhar in the central gulf. The locations of the western gulf are

having relatively good coral conditions.

The history of these reefs reveals that even before the area was declared as MPA,

the dredging of sand and other calcium resources were more on the eastern and central

parts of the southern GoK. Whereas the western parts were relatively less disturbed. In the

current study also, maximum industrial pressure is noted on the central and eastern parts of

the gulf. Considering the coral growth physiology, if such pressure continues for a longer

98 | P a g e
duration, the corals will become restricted to the some patches of western gulf. The results

of the current study clearely indicates heavy degradation in the central and eastern parts of

the GoK with reference to live coral cover and coral species richness, which points out

towards the past exploitation of the reefs of eastern and central gulf area and current

industrialization, which is also buiding rapid pace in the eastern and central GoK.

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