To think that mathematics can benefit by acknowledging that the creation of good

models is just as important as proving deep theorems.

David Mumford

LECTURE 4. Limit of a function at a point and at the

infinity
There are two definitions of the limit of a function: by Heine
and by Cauchy.
The definition by Heine is sometimes called the definition “at
the language of sequences”.
The definition by Cauchy is called the definition at “ ”
language.
Let a function f(x) be defined on some set X. Take an infinite
sequence of points x1, x2 ,..., xn ,... , from X, converging to point a,
a  X or a  X . The corresponding values of the function at the
points make a number sequence: f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ),..., f ( xn ),.. .
Definition (by Heine). If for any sequence x1 , x2 ,..., xn ,... ,
converging to point a the corresponding sequence
f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ),..., f ( xn ),... converges to the same number A:
lim f ( xn )  A , then the number A is said to be the limit of function
n
f(x) at point a ( x  a) , or they say that function f(x) has the limit
A at point x = a.
This fact is denoted as lim f ( x)  A or as f ( x)  A at x  a .
xa
Definition (by Cauchy). They say that function f (x) has limit A at
point x  a if for   0  ( )  0 that for x : x  a   there
holds true the inequality

47
 f ( x)  A   .
In this case, like above, they write that lim f ( x)  A
xa .
 Example. Prove that lim(2 x  1)  5 .
x2
Solution. We have that f ( x)  (2 x  1), A  5, a  2 .
Let us solve the inequality:
f ( x)  A  
or
(2 x  1)  5  
whence
2x  4  
or
2 x2 


x2 
2

So , for   0  ( )   0 that for x : x  2   there holds true
2
(2 x  1)  5  
This by definition of limit means that
lim(2x  1)  5 ►
x2 .
Definition. Function f (x) has a finite limit A at the infinity ( at
x   ) if for arbitrarily small positive number   0 there exists
such a positive number ( )  0 that for all x : x   there holds
true the inequality
f ( x)  A   .
This limit is designated as lim f ( x)  A or f ( x)  A at x   .
x

48
 1
Example. Prove that lim  0.
x  (2 x  1)

1
Solution. So, f ( x)  , A  0, a   .
(2 x  1)
Let us solve the inequality
f ( x)  A  
Or
1
0 
(2 x  1)
1 1 1
  2x  1 
(2 x  1) , 2 x 1 , 
1
2 x  0.5 

1
x  0.5 
2
1 1
x  0.5  x  0.5  
2 , 2
1
x  0.5 
2
 1 
x    0.5  ( )
 2 
So, if for   0 there exists such a positive number
 1 
( )    0.5  0 that for all x : x   there holds true the
 2 
inequality
1
0 
(2 x  1) .

49
 Definition. Function f (x) is called infinitely small, or infinitesimal,
at point x  a if lim f ( x)  0 .
x a

For example, functions 2 x 2 , x 3  4 x , sin x, ln(x  1) , xe x are

infinitesimals at point x  0 (prove yourselves).
Definition. Function f (x) is called infinitely large at point x  a if
lim f ( x)   .
x a
1 1 1 1 1
 Example. Functions , 3 , , , x are
2 x x  4 x sin x ln( x  1) xe
2

infinitely large at point x  0 (prove!). ►

There is Cauchy criterion of the existence of the limit of function.
Cauchy criterion. Function f (x) has a finite limit at point x  a if
and only if for   0  ( )  0 that for x' , x' ' : x'a  
,
x' 'a   there holds true the inequality
f ( x' )  f ( x' ' )   .

2.Left and right limits

Let us introduce the concepts of unilateral (one-sided) limits of a
function.
Definition. When a sequnce of the values of argument x tends
( ) to a on the left (on the right) of point a, i.e. ,
then the limit of sequence { } is said to be left-hand (right-
hand) limit and it is denoted as
( ).
 Example. Consider f ( x)  2  x , if x  0, . Find the right
 3
 x  4 , if x  0.
and left limits at point x = 0.
S o l u t i o n. The left limit is equal to

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 .
The right limit is equal to

So, ►

Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy

and wise.

Definition. When sequence tends to point x=a on the right

( ), i.e. , then the limit of sequence is said
to be right-hand limit f(a+0) of function f(x):
.

 Example 2. Consider f ( x)  1 x ,

 2
if x  1,
. Find the right
3x  4 , if x  1.
and left limits at point x = 1.

S o l u t i o n. The left limit at point is equal to

or

The right limit at point is equal to

Judging by some of the specific features of its creation, the

great creator of the universe begins to appear before us as a
pure mathematician.
James Jins

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 or
So, the left and right limits are not equal to each other:

This means that the given function has no limit at point ►

Exercises.
Find the left and right limits of the functions
1. f ( x)  2  x , if x  1, at point x = 1.
 2
 x  2 , if x  1.
2. f ( x)  1 x , if x  0, at point x = 0.
 2
 x  2 x , if x  0.
 sin x
3. f ( x)   x , if x  0, at point x  0


1 , if x  0.

4. f ( x)   point x  0 .
1

e x2
, if x  0, at


0 , if x  0.


point x  0 .
1

Example. Find  x 2 , if x  0, at
f ( x)  e

0 , if x  0.

Solution. Let us find left and right limits:

.
As then .

52
As then . Therefore, function is
continuous at point .

A man who knows how to observe and analyze, is simply

impossible to cheat. His conclusions will be infallible as Euclid's
theorems.
Arthur Conan Doyle

3.Theorems on a limit of a function

Theorem 1. If function f(x) has a finite limit A at point x=a then its
left-hand and right-hand limits are equal to each other (to the same
number A): , and , vice
versa, if its left and right limits exist are equal to each other
then there .
Theorem 2. Let functions f(x) and g(x) have finite limits A and B at
point a. Then in this and only in this case
,
,

Theorem 2 is true for or .

Exercises

53
 x 2  5x  6 x2  8
1. lim 2. lim
x2 x 2  3x  2 x0  2 x 2  x  2

x2  9
3. lim .
x3 x  2

 Example. Calculate lim x

2
 5x  6
.
x 2 x  3x  2
2

0
S o l u t i o n. We can‟t pass to limit directly as we get uncertainly .
0
But if we factorize the numerator and denominator then we can
reduce the common multiplier:
x 2  5x  6 ( x  3)( x  2) x 3 23
lim 2  lim  lim   1. ►
x2 x  3x  2 x2 ( x  1)( x  2) x2 x  1 2 1
A man's house is his castle.

 Example. Find lim 4x  2 .

x  x 1

S o l u t i o n. If we pass to limit directly then we get uncertainty

.
That is why we divide both the numerator and denominator by the
highest degree of x in this fraction - just by x:
2 2 2
4 lim (4  ) 4  lim 40
4x  2 x  x x  x x
lim  lim   4.
x  x  1 x  1 1 1 1 0
1 lim (1  ) 1  lim
x x x x x

Remark. When solving exercises we can apply wonderful limits for a

function:

54
 x
sin x
 1.  1
1. lim 2. lim 1    e.
x 0 x x 
 x

Exercises.
Find the limits
x 2  4 x  45 2x 2  x  1
1. lim 2 . 2. lim 3 . 3. lim( x  3  x ) .
x5 x  2 x  35 x  x  x 2  1 x 

x 3 x 2  5x  4 x2 1
4. lim . 5. lim . 6. lim .
x x 2  9 x1 x 2  6 x  5 x  x  1


sin(x  ) x2
7. lim 3 . 8. lim x  2  .9. lim(1  x)tg x .
 1  2 cos x x 2 x  1
x
3
  x1 2
1 x

10. lim  tg(   x ) 

2

.11. lim  x  2  .12. lim  x  1 1

tg 2 x x
x
.

x  0
4
 8  x
 2x  1 x
 x 2
1 x
 x  1 1 x
13. lim(1  x)tg x .14. lim(1  x)tg x . 15. lim 
x 1 x  2
x1 2 x1 2  
Example. Find lim(1  x)tg x
x1 2 .
Solution. If we pass to limit in lim(1  x)tg x we „ll get
x1 2
uncertainty 0  
.
x2
Example. Find lim x  2  , lim(1  x)tg x .
x  2 x  1
  x1 2
Solution.

55
 x2 x2
 x2   x  0.5  0.5  2 
lim   lim  
x  2 x  1 2( x  0.5)
1)   x 
 
x2 
1 2.5  1
 lim       0.

x  2 2( x  0.5  2
0 x   x 
lim(1  x)tg  lim(1  x)ctg   
2)
x1 2 x1 2 2 

Mathematics is less knowledge than skills.

F.J. Davis

2  (1  x)   (1  x)  2
 lim ctg   lim  ctg 
 2  2    0
x 1

2  2 2
 lim cos   1  cos0 
  0 sin   

tg 2 x
 
lim

 tg(  x ) 
Example. Find x 4 0 8 
.
Solution. As

  3  3
tg(  )  tg  tg  1 , 0  ctg 1
8 4 8 4 8
 
  3  3 
tg 2 x
  
Then lim

 tg(  x)    tg    ctg  0
x  0 8   8   8 
4 .

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