Chapters

13 & 14
 Energy: The capacity to do work
 Potential Energy: stored energy due to position or
condition. Chemicals can store energy; thus they have
potential energy.

 Kinetic Energy: energy in motion.

Kinetic Theory
 Particles have no attractive or repulsive forces existing
between the particles

 Particles in gas move rapidly in constant motion. They

travel in a straight path.

 Total kinetic energy is conserved when particles collide.

3
Models of Atoms
Atomic Models:
 Chemical properties of atoms, ions, and molecules are
related to the arrangement of the electrons within
them.
 John Dalton: 1st atomic model & considered the atom
as a solid indivisible mass.
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles
called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are identical. The atoms of

any one element are different from those of any other
element.

3. Atoms of different elements can physically mix

together or can chemically combine.

4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are

separated, joined, or rearranged. Atoms of
element are never changed into atoms of another
element as a result of a chemical reaction.
 J.J. Thomson: revised Dalton’s model by proposing
that electrons were stuck to the outside of the atom.

 Ernest Rutherford: proposed the nuclear atom, in

which electrons surround a dense nucleus composed
of protons and neutrons.

 Chadwick: discovered the neutron.

Discovery of the nucleus
 This theory was discovered by Rutherford who
bombarded a sheet of gold foil with a beam of alpha
particles surrounded by a fluorescent screen. They
found that most of the particles passed through the
foil, while a few were deflected.
 Niels Bohr: student of Rutherford; proposed that
electrons are arranged in concentric circular paths
(orbits) around the nucleus.

 Erwin Schrodinger: developed the quantum

mechanical model
 Atoms – tiny particles that make up
matter
Structure of Atoms:
 Nucleus – center of the atom

 protons – positively charged subatomic particles that

are found in the nucleus; dictates the identity of the
atom

-(Discovered by E. Goldstein using canal rays. Canal

rays traveled from the positive metal plate to the
negative metal plates)
 Neutron: subatomic particle with no charge; found in
the nucleus

- Discovered by James Chadwick

 Electron: negatively charged; found outside the

nucleus ( electron cloud)

- Discovered by J.J. Thomson using a cathode ray - the

rays were attracted to a metal plate of positive charge.
Particles Symbol Charge Relative Actual
mass mass (g)

Electron e- 1- 9.11x10-28

Proton p+ 1+ 1 1.67x10-24

Neutron n0 0 1 1.67x10-24
 Atomic Number - the # of protons in the
nucleus

- the # of protons = the # of electrons

 Mass Number – total # of protons &

neutrons in an atom
- To find the # of neutrons subtract the
atomic # from the mass #
Example: Nitrogen (147N)
Mass number = 14
Atomic number = 7

# of protons = 7
# of electrons = 7
# of neutrons = 14 – 7= 7
 Isotopes - Have the same # of protons, but different #’s
of neutrons

 Atomic Mass Unit (AMU) – 1/12 the mass of carbon

 Average atomic mass: weighted average of the

masses of the isotopes of an element
 In nature most elements occur as a mixture of two or
more isotopes

 Each isotope has a fixed mass and a natural percentage

of abundance.
Average Atomic Mass
Avg atomic mass: what is found
on the periodic table

 =(mass)(% abundance) + (mass)(% abundance) +…

Practice Problem
 Assume that element Uus is synthesized and that it
has the following stable isotopes:

284Uus (283.4 amu) 34.60%

285Uus (284.7 amu) 21.20%
288Uus (287.8 amu) 44.20%

What would the average atomic mass be?

Bohr’s Model
 Orbits are known as energy levels.
 Electrons can move between energy levels.
 A quantum of energy is the amount of energy required
to move an electron up an energy level.
 The higher the energy level the easier the electron can
escape.
 Bohr Models

Examples on the board

Elements #1-20
Atomic Orbitals
1. Principal Quantum Numbers ( ) = 1,2,3,4….

2. Each principal level contains sublevels

* Table 13.1 p. 364

3. Atomic orbitals are regions where electrons can be

found. (Letter denotes the orbital)
 S orbitals are spherical.

 P orbitals are dumbbell-shaped.

( exist in three different planes)

 D orbitals have clover leaf shapes

 F orbitals have complex shapes

4. The number & kinds of atomic orbitals depend on the
energy sub level.

a. N = 1; 1 sublevel; 1s orbital
b. N = 2; 2 sublevels; 2s (1 orbital),
2p ( 3 orbitals)
c. N = 3; 3 sublevels; 3s ( 1 orbital),
3p (3 orbitals), 3d (5 orbitals)
d. N = 4; 4 sublevels; 4s (1 orbital),
4p (3 orbitals), 4d ( 5 orbitals),
4f (7 orbitals)
 2n2
(n = principal quantum
number).

This equals the

maximum # of
electrons that the
sublevel can hold.
Electron Arrangements in Atoms
Electron Configurations:
1. Unstable systems tend to lose energy to become
stable.
2. Electrons try to form stable arrangements with the
nucleus.
3. The way in which electrons are arranged around the
nuclei of atoms is called electron configuration.
4. Three rules tell you how to find the electron
configuration of atoms.
a. Aufbau principle: electrons enter orbitals of
lowest energy level first.

b. Pauli exclusion principle: and atomic orbital may

describe at most two electrons. (arrows show the
direction of electron spin)

c. Hund’s rule: when electrons occupy orbitals of

equal energy, one electron enters each orbital, all of
orbitals contain one electron with parallel spins.
Electron Configurations of Ions
5. When writing electron
configurations for ions
you must add or
subtract the # of
electrons gained or
lost to create the ion.
Electron Configuration
Practice

Elements #1-20
 PERIODIC TABLE
 Periodic Table – an arrangement of
elements according to similarities in their
properties
 There are 92 naturally occurring elements.
 Demitri Mendeleev – drew the first
periodic table; Russian chemist arranged
the first periodic table of elements in 1871.
Arranged by atomic mass
 * The periodic table contains chemical symbol,
atomic number, & average atomic mass,
physical state of each element, group numbers,
and electron configuration.

 Moseley: Later arranged the periodic table by

atomic number. (Which is the one we use
today.)
 MODERN TABLE
 Periods – horizontal rows (7 total)
 Groups – vertical columns (has similar physical &
chemical properties)
 Metals – high electrical conductivity, luster,
ductile, & malleable (Group 1 & 2A)
- Alkali Metals – Group 1A
- Alkaline Earth Metals – Group 2A
 Transition Metals & Inner Transition Metals –
make up Group B (1B – 8B)

 Nonmetals – poor conductors, non lustrous

- Halogens – 7A
- Noble Gases – 0

 Metalloids – elements that border the stair step line

 Group # = the outermost electrons

Periodic Trends
 The elements on the periodic table are
arranged periodically so that trends can
be recognized…
Trend of Ions
1. You can determine the charge of an ion by what
group it is in.
1A = +1 5A = -3
2A = +2 6A = -2
3A = +3 7A = -1
4A = +/- 4
Trend of Electronegativity
 This refers to the ability of an atom to attract the
electrons of another atom to it.

 Increases across the period ( left – right)

 Decreases down the group ( top – bottom)

Trend of Electron affinity
 Measure of the tendency for atoms to gain electrons.

 Increases across the period; this is caused by the filling

of the valence shells

 Decreases down the group; this is due to the electron

entering an orbital far away from the nucleus
Trend of Ionization Energy
 The exact quantity of energy that it takes to remove
the outermost electron from the atom.

 Factors affecting Ionization Energy:

- nuclear charge
- distance from the nucleus
 Ionization energy increases across the period ( left –
right) due to increased nuclear charge

 Ionization energy decreases down the group ( top –

bottom)
Trend of Atomic Radius
 Atomic size is determined by how much space the
electron takes up. It is also depends on how far its
valence electrons are from the nucleus.

 The atom will be large if the electron is far from the

nucleus
- size increases down a group (top – bottom)
 The atom will be small if the electron is close to the
nucleus
- size decreases across the period ( left – right)

This is due to an increase in nuclear charge pulling

them closer… the energy level stays the same
Trend of Metallic/Non-Metallic
Properties
 Metallic properties: elements will form cations as they
lose electrons (+ve charge)

 Non-Metallic properties: elements form anions as they

gain electrons (-ve charge)
Trend of Melting / Boiling
Points
 Melting and Boiling point increase from the right side
of the periodic table until it reaches aluminum and
silicon

 Here, melting point and boiling point then begin to

decrease.
Trend of Reactivity
How likely/vigorously an atom is to react with other
substances
 Metals:
- Period: decreases from left to right
- Group: increases down the group

The farther left and down you go the easier it is for

electrons to be taken away. (Higher Reactivity)
Trend of Reactivity
 Non-Metals
- Period: increases from left to right
- Group: decreases down the group

The farther right and up you go the higher

electronegativity – vigorous exchange of electrons
Classification of Elements
Elements can be classified into 4 groups based on
electrons.
1. Noble gases: outermost s & p sublevels are
filled. Belong to group 0. (Also called inert
gases.)
2. Representative elements: outermost s or p
sublevel is partially filled
3. Transition metals: metallic elements in which the
outermost s sublevel and near d sublevel contain
electrons. (Group B elements)

4. Inner transition metals: metallic elements in which

the outermost s sublevel and nearby f sublevel
generally contain electrons. (Lanthanide & Actinide
series)
Light and Atomic Spectra
 Light consists of electromagnetic waves.
 Light has a velocity of 3.0 x 10 8 m/s.
 Amplitude: is the wave height from origin to crest.
 Wavelength (λ): distance between crest.
 Frequency (ν): number of wavelength to pass a given
point per unit of time.
(units = hertz Hz)
 c = speed of light (3.00 x 10 8 m/s)
 λ= wavelength c=λν
 ν= frequency

Example: Calculate the wavelength of the yellow light

emitted by a sodium lamp if the frequency of the
radiation is 5.10 x 10 14 Hz (5.10 x 10 14 s-1).

c = 3.00 x 108 m/s

Frequency (ν) = 5.10 x 1014 s-1
wavelength (λ) = ??? m
 Frequency & wavelength are inversely related.

 Electromagnetic spectrum: series of waves at

different wavelengths (radio waves, radar, microwaves,
infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays,
cosmic rays)

 Every element emits light when it is excited by the

passage of an electric discharge through its gas or
vapor.
Black & White Light
 Black light – All colors absorbed

 White Light – All colors reflected

 What happens for you to see colors?

Planck’s constant (h)– 6.63 x 10 -34 J x s
 E = energy E=hxν
 h = Planck’s constant
 ν = frequency

Example: Calculate the energy (J) of a quantum of radiant energy (the

energy of a photon) with a frequency of 5.00 x 1015 s-1.

ν = 5.00 x 1015 s-1

h = 6.63 x 10 -34 J x s
Energy(E) = ??? J