NOTFORSALE NOTFORSALE

ABUBAKARTAFAWABALEWAUNI VERSITYBAUCHI
DI
RECTORATEOFGENERALSTUDI ES
SECONDSEMESTER2020/2021ACADEMI CSESSI
ON
GNS121:USEOFENGLI
SHI ILECTUREMANUAL
I
NTRODUCTI
ON

GNS121:UseofEngl
i
shI
Iisa2cr
edi
tuni
tcor
ecour
sef
oral
lATBUf
resh(
bot
hUTME
andDE)st
udent
s.Thecour
seexposesst
udent
stot
heski
l
lsofacademi
cwr
it
ing
r
elev
antt
o sci
enceand t
echnol
ogyr
elat
ed di
sci
pli
nesi
nvol
vi
ng assi
gnment
s,t
erm
paper
,labor
ator
yexper
imentandwor
kshopr
epor
ts.UseofEngl
i
shI
I,t
her
efor
e,seeks
t
oaddr
essst
udent
s’subj
ectspeci
fi
car
eaneedssoast
obeabl
etoef
fect
ivel
ypr
esent
coher
entt
echni
calr
epor
tsi
nthepr
ocessoft
hei
racademi
cendeav
ors.Thecour
se
consi
stsoft
wocomponent
s:r
esear
chpaperwr
it
ingandf
unct
ional
wri
ti
ng.

COURSEOUTLI
NE

I
. Resear
chPaperWr
it
ing

a)
.Def
ini
ti
on,
Pur
posesandScopeofResear
ch

b)
.Basi
cTy
pesandPar
tsofaResear
chPaper

c)
.Techni
cal
Ter
msassoci
atedwi
thResear
ch

d)
.Ref
erenci
ng

I
I. Funct
ional
Wri
ti
ng

a)
.Descr
ipt
ion

b)
.Def
ini
ti
on

c)
.Exempl
i
ficat
ion

d)
.Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion

e)
.Compar
isonandCont
rast

f
).CauseandEf
fect

g)
.Gener
ali
zat
ionandQual
i
ficat
ion
 h)
.Int
erpr
etat
ionofDat
a

i
).Dr
awi
ngConcl
usi
on

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Formalwr it
ingcanbecat egori
zedintoacademi cwri
ting,busi nesswr i
ti
ngandof fi
cial
writ
ing.Thiscour sei sbasicall
ydevot edt oacademicwr iti
ngasi tconcernsst udents’
abil
i
tyt opr oducer eadabledocument sf orav ari
etyofpur poses.Academi cwr it
ingis
general
lyobj ecti
ve,fact
ualandv er
ifi
abl e.Thi
sform ofwr i
tinginv ol
vesstudents’wr i
tt
en
assi
gnment s,term papers,andpr ojects;hencet heinclusionofr esear
chr eport,and
generaltechnicali
ti
esoff uncti
onalwrit
ingr el
evanttoscienceandt echnol
ogy.

PARTI
:RESEARCHPAPERWRI
TING

I
.IDef
ini
ti
onandScopeofResear
ch

The Advanced Lear ner

s’Dicti
onary ofCur rentEngli
sh defi
nes resear
ch as… “ an
i
nvesti
gationundertakeninor
dertodiscov ernewfact
s,getaddit
ionali
nfor
mati
on, et
c.”
Theterm canbedef i
nedasacar ef
ul,dili
gentandri
gorousstudytof i
ndoutnewf acts
onapar t
iculari
ssue.Itisasystemati
ci nquir
ytofi
ndasol ut
iontoapr obl
em,discover
newknowl edge,confi
rm ordi
sputef
indingsinprevi
ousresear
ch.

In essence,research is a st r
uctured inquir
yt hat ut
il
izes accept
able sci
ent
ifi
c
methodologytosolv eproblemsandcr eatenew knowledge.Itisascienti
fi
cprocess
consist
ingofsystematicobservati
on,classi
fi
cationandint
erpretat
ionofdat
a.Because
i
tisscienti
fi
c,aresearchisusuallysystematicbasedonobser vati
onsandexperi
ments
rat
herthanmerespecul at
ion,guessi
ngoropi nion.

Ingener al
,weasschol ars,rel
yonr esearchf i
ndingst osolvepr oblemsi ntheent i
re
society.So,probl
em sol v
ingi sthemai nr easonbehi ndev eryscientif
icinvesti
gati
on.
Ther ef
ore,attheoutset,thepr obl
em mustbeest abl
ished,observableandempi ri
call
y
testableandt henclearlydef i
ned.Foracademi cpur poses,researchcansi mplybe
descr i
bedasameansof :1.doi ngol dthingsinanew andeasi erway ;2.doi
ngnew
thingsinnewandf asterway s;3.understandingourenv ir
onmentbet ter;and,sol
vingthe
problemsar oundus.

Theproblem i
susual
l
yani nterr
ogati
vesentencethatasksf oraclearrelat
ionshi
p
exi
sti
ng bet
ween atl
eastt wo ormor ev ar
iabl
es (i
ndependentand dependent).A
var
iabl
eisacondi
ti
onthatobtains(andwhi
chmayv ary)atagivent
ime.Thereaf
ter,t
he
resear
cherbegins to suggestvarious causes and solutions bywayofi ntell
igent
guessingcommonl yknownas‘ hypothesis’
,whichisat entativepr oposit
ionsuggest ed
as a solut
ion (answer)to a problem ( questi
on)oras an expl anati
on ofsome
phenomenon.Ahy pot
hesiscanbef ormulatedinanyoft het hreeforms:declarat i
ve
form,non-dir
ecti
onal(null
)f or
m and quest ion for
m.Hy potheses ar e par
ticularl
y
necessarywherethecauseandeffectrelati
onshipsareinvestigated.

1.
2 Basi
cTy
pesandPar
tsofaResear
chPaper

1.
2.1Ty
pesofr
esear
ch

Ther ear enumer oust ypesofr esear cheachr ef

lecti
ngt hepur posef orwhi chi tis
under t
akenandt heappr oach.Fori nst ance,fr
om thev i
ewpoi ntofappl i
cat i
on,thereare
twobr oadcat egoriesofr esearch:1.Pur eresearchand2.Appl i
edr esearch.I nthe
cont extofobj ectives,researchcanbecl assi
fi
edas1.descr i
pt ive,2.cor rel
ati
ve, and3.
expl anat oryorexpl oratory.Resear ch coul d al
so becl assified on t hebasi soft he
processorappr oachadopt edt of i
ndanswer stor esearchquest i
ons.Thesear e1.
struct uredorquant itat
iveand2.unst ructuredorqualit
ati
ve.Ther eisalsoacombi nati
on
oft het wo,descr i
bedas3.‘ mixed’appr oach.Fundament ally,howev er,thetwomaj or
typesofr esearchar e1.sur vey(obser vi
ngwhati sthereasi ti s;thatis,whati sal r
eady
obt ainabl e)and2.exper i
ment al(attempt ingdoinganew t hingi nt hel i
ghtofwhati s
alreadyobt ainingwi thav iewt oar r
ivingatasol uti
on).Theset wodi f
feront hebasi sof
themet hodofdat acollecti
onandt her esearchdesign.

Sourceofdat acoul dbeprimar y(quest

ionnaire,
observat
ionandi nt
ervi
ew)orsecondar y
(test
,books,j ournal
s,newspaper s,encyclopedia,magazines,et
c.).Aninter
view could
best ructured orunst r
uctured.What evert het ypeofr esear
ch in an i
nter
v i
ew,t he
researcherensur esthatthel anguageusedr ef
lectst
heeducat i
onallevel
,age,reli
gion
andsoci alposit
ionoftheinter v
iewee.

When gat heri

ng dataf orresear
ch,itis al
ways essentialto clear
ly defi
ne the
goal
/problem;analy
zet hem t
obeabl etorai
sequestionsbasedont hemai n/
central
i
ssue;putdownnot es;compareandcontr
astvar
iousv i
ews/ opi
nionofothersont he
si
milarissueorprevi
ousf i
ndi
ngsrel
evantt
othepresentstudyanddr awi
ngconcl usi
on
fr
om availabl
eevi
dences.

1.
2.2 Par
tsofar
esear
chpaper

1.
2.2.
1Ar
ti
clebasedpaper

Ev
ent
hought
hest
ruct
ureofapr
ofessi
onalj
our
nalandt
hatofar
esear
chpr
ojectar
e
supposedt
obesi
mil
ar,t
heyar
enotact
ual
l
ythesame.Thi
sisbecauseoft
hesev
eral
r
est
ri
cti
onsofaj
our
nalspace.Ther
efor
e,agr
eatdealofdet
aili
sexcl
udedi
naj
our
nal
ar
ti
cle.Thi
smakesaj
our
nalpapermuchshor
tert
hanar
esear
chpr
oject
.Anar
ti
cle
basedpaperi
susual
l
ynotmor
ethan15pagesl
ong.I
tsbasi
cpar
tsar
eabst
ract
,
i
ntr
oduct
ion, mat
eri
al and met
hods, r
esul
t, di
scussi
on, concl
usi
on and
r
ecommendat
ions(
ifany
)andr
efer
ences.

Abst
ract

Unl
i
kea‘
pref
ace’f
orabook,whi
chi
nfor
mst
her
eaderwhati
sav
ail
abl
eint
het
ext
sect
ionbysect
ion,an‘
abst
ract
’ofar
esear
chpaperi
sabr
iefconci
sesummar
y(not
mor
ethan120wor
ds)oft
heent
ir
edocumentpr
esent
edi
nal
esst
echni
calmanner
.Iti
s
wr
it
teni
nasi
ngl
eli
nespaceand br
ief
lycapt
urest
hebackgr
ound,mai
npur
pose,
met
hodsadopt
ed,r
esul
ts,concl
usi
onandr
ecommendat
ion(
ifany
).Abst
racti
swr
it
ten
af
tert
hewor
khasbeencompl
etedbutbr
oughtt
othebegi
nni
ngoft
hepaper
.

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thi
sanswer
swhyt
hest
udyi
sofsci
ent
if
ici
nter
estandexpl
ainst
hebackgr
oundoft
he
st
udy
.Thi
sissummar
izedsucci
nct
ly,butnoti
temi
zed.Thesect
ional
sodi
scussest
he
r
esul
tsandconcl
usi
onsofpr
evi
ousl
ypubl
i
shedst
udi
esr
elat
edt
othepr
esentone.Thus,
t
hemaj
ori
tyofst
atement
sher
ear
eref
erenced.I
tiswr
it
teni
nthi
rdper
sonusi
ngact
ive
v
oice.I
tisor
gani
zedt
omov
efr
om gener
alt
ospeci
fi
cinf
ormat
ion.Thesect
ioni
s
l
i
mit
edt
ost
udi
est
hatr
elat
edi
rect
lyt
othepr
esentst
udy
.Thus,
becausej
our
nalar
ti
cles
donotr
equi
reext
ensi
vel
i
ter
atur
erev
iew,
thef
ewav
ail
abl
eonesar
ecapt
uredundert
his
sect
ion.

Thel
astpar
tsoft
hissect
ioni
nvol
vest
atementofpr
obl
em andr
esear
chquest
ionsas
wel
lashy
pot
heses(
ifany
).Thi
spr
ovi
desagoodt
ransi
ti
ont
othenextsect
ion,known
asmat
eri
alandmet
hods,i
nwhi
cht
her
esear
cherexpl
ainshow t
heypr
oceedt
omeet
t
her
esear
chobj
ect
ivesandanswerr
esear
chquest
ionsort
estt
hehy
pot
heses.

Mat
eri
alsandMet
hod

Thi
sinv
olv
es t
he mat
eri
als used i
nthe st
udy and t
he st
eps t
aken i
nthe
exper
iment
/st
udy
.Iti
showev
er,notal
i
stofi
nst
rument
s.Thesect
ioni
ncl
udest
he
popul
ati
on si
ze,sampl
i
ng t
echni
ques and sampl
e si
ze and a br
iefdescr
ipt
ion of
st
ati
sti
calt
estused.Thesect
ioni
swr
it
teni
npastt
enseasi
tdescr
ibeswhatwas
act
ual
l
ydonet
ogener
atedat
a.

Resul
ts

Thi
ssect
ionpr
esent
sther
esul
ts/
findi
ngsoft
heexper
imentbutdoesnotat
temptt
o
i
nter
prett
hei
rmeani
ngs.I
tdoes noti
ncl
ude t
he r
aw dat
a col
l
ect
ed.I
nst
ead,t
he
r
esear
cheronl
ysummar
izest
hedat
awi
tht
ext
,tabl
esand/
orf
igur
es.Her
e,t
het
extof
t
hepaperi
susedt
ost
atet
her
esul
tst
henr
efer
encei
smadet
oat
abl
eorf
igur
ewher
e
t
hedat
aar
esummar
ized.Youal
way
spr
oceedf
rom gener
alt
ospeci
fi
cfeat
uresoft
he
dat
a.Thet
extshoul
drel
atet
oyourdat
aint
hoseoft
hel
i
ter
atur
e.Howev
er,t
hesame
dat
ashoul
dnotbepr
esent
edi
nbot
hat
abl
eandaf
igur
e.I
nthi
ssect
ion,y
oual
way
s
concent
rat
eongener
alpat
ter
ns,
trendsanddi
ff
erencesi
nther
esul
ts.

Youar
erequi
redt
ost
atet
her
esul
tasconci
sel
yaspossi
ble.Accompanyt
hewor
d
“
signi
fi
cant
ly”byt
hest
ati
sti
calpr
obabi
l
ityl
evel(
e.g.p=0.
05)
.Al
though,usi
ngaf
igur
e
i
saccept
abl
e,i
tisbestt
opr
esentt
hedat
ainat
abl
eunl
esst
her
eisv
isuali
nfor
mat
ion
t
hatcanbegai
nedbyusi
ngaf
igur
e.

Di
scussi
on

Thi
sist
hesect
ionwher
eyoui
nter
prett
hedat
ainr
elat
iont
otheor
igi
nalobj
ect
ivesor
hy
pot
heses.Then,
your
elat
eyouri
nter
pret
ati
onst
othepr
esentst
ateofknowl
edgeand
f
utur
eneedsf
orr
esear
ch.I
nthi
ssect
ion,i
tisaccept
abl
etoexpl
ainwhatt
her
esul
ts
meanorwhyt
heydi
ff
erf
rom whatot
her
shav
efound.Hence,
youi
nter
pretr
esul
tsi
nthe
l
i
ghtofot
herpubl
i
shedr
esul
tsbyput
ti
ngaddi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ionf
rom sour
cesy
ouci
ted
i
nthei
ntr
oduct
ionsect
ionaswel
lasi
ntr
oduci
ngnew sour
cesbypr
ovi
dingaccur
ate
ci
tat
ions.Youshoul
dal
sor
elat
eyourdi
scussi
onbackt
otheobj
ect
ivesandquest
ions
y
our
aisedi
nthei
ntr
oduct
ionsect
ion.Howev
er,y
oudonothav
etosi
mpl
yrest
atet
he
obj
ect
ives.I
nthi
ssect
ion,y
ouequal
l
ysuggestf
utur
edi
rect
ionsf
orr
esear
ch,new
met
hodsandexpl
anat
ionf
ordev
iat
ionf
rom pr
evi
ousl
ypubl
i
shedr
esul
ts.I
tis,
ofcour
se,
essent
ial
thaty
ouci
tesour
cesi
nthedi
scussi
onsect
ionasev
idenceofy
ourcl
aims.The
ci
tedsour
cesi
ncl
udi
ngt
hosei
nthei
ntr
oduct
ionsect
ionmustbeaccount
edf
orunder
t
he ‘
Ref
erences’sect
ion,whi
ch i
sthe l
astsect
ion exceptwher
eyou hav
e ot
her
i
nfor
mat
ionofsecondar
yimpor
tancesuchasr
owdat
athaty
oupl
acei
nthe‘
Appendi
x’
.

1.
2.2.
2Par
tsofapr
ojectbasedpaper

Apr
ojecthast
hreemaj
orpar
ts.Theyar
epr
eli
minar
ypagesorpr
eli
minar
ies,
mai
nrepor
t
andendmat
ter
.Pr
eli
minar
ypagesconsi
stofcov
erpage,t
it
lepage,decl
arat
ionpage,
appr
ovalpage,t
abl
eofcont
ent
s,l
i
stoft
abl
e,l
i
stoff
igur
es,abst
ract
,dedi
cat
ion,and
acknowl
edgement
s.

Mai
nrepor
tsl
i
ght
lydi
ff
ersf
rom onei
nst
it
uti
ont
otheot
her
.Thi
ssect
ioni
susual
l
y
br
okeni
ntochapt
ers.Chapt
erOnei
sknownas‘
I
ntr
oduct
ion’
,Chapt
erTwo‘
Rev
iew of
(
rel
ated)Li
ter
atur
e’,Chapt
erThr
eei
s‘Resear
chMet
hodol
ogy
’,Chapt
erFouri
s‘Resul
t
Anal
ysi
sandI
nter
pret
ati
onofDat
a’andChapt
erFi
vei
s‘Summar
y,Concl
usi
onand
Recommendat
ions’
.Thel
astpar
t,knownasendmat
teri
nvol
vesr
efer
encesandal
l
i
nfor
mat
ionofsecondar
yimpor
tancecommonl
yknownasappendi
ces.

Pr
eli
minar
ies

Cov
erpage

Apaget
hatappear
satt
hebegi
nni
ngofar
esear
chwor
kconsi
sti
ngofabout20wor
ds
i
nlengt
hast
het
it
lef
oll
owedot
heri
nfor
mat
ionsucht
henameofaut
hor
,nameoft
he
i
nst
it
uti
onandt
hey
ear
.

Ti
tl
epage

Thi
spagei
simmedi
atel
ynextt
ocov
erpageandcont
ainsev
ery
thi
ngont
hecov
erpage;
and.i
naddi
ti
on,st
atest
hepur
posef
orwhi
cht
hepr
ojecti
ssubmi
tt
ed.Thet
it
lecl
ear
ly
def
inest
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hev
ari
abl
esandi
ndi
cat
est
hepopul
ati
onf
ort
hest
udy
.

Decl
arat
ionpage

Thepagewher
ether
esear
cherdecl
arest
hatt
hewor
kisani
ndependentst
udy

Appr
oval
/Cer
ti
fi
cat
ionpage

Thi
sshowst
hesi
gnat
ureoft
her
elev
antper
sonsashav
ingappr
ovedt
her
esear
ch
r
epor
t.

Tabl
eofcont
ent
s

Thi
scont
ainsand sequent
ial
l
yli
stsal
ltheheadi
ngsand sub headi
ngswi
tht
hei
r
cor
respondi
ngpagel
ocat
ions.Thepagenumber
sar
eusual
l
yident
if
iedandwr
it
tenaf
ter
t
hewor
khasbeencompl
eted.

Li
stoft
abl
es

I
tli
stsal
ltabl
esi
nthewor
kwi
tht
hei
rcor
respondi
ngpagel
ocat
ions(
thef
ull
tit
leofeach
t
abl
eisusual
l
yment
ionedandser
ial
l
ynumber
edont
het
opl
efthandsi
deoft
het
abl
e).

Li
stoff
igur
es

I
tli
stsal
lfi
gur
esi
nthewor
kwi
tht
hei
rcor
respondi
ngpagel
ocat
ions(
Unl
i
kel
i
stoft
abl
e,
t
henumberandt
it
leofev
eryf
igur
eisi
ndi
cat
edoni
tsbot
tom)
.

Li
stofAppendi
ces

I
tli
stsal
lappendi
cesi
nthewor
kwi
tht
hei
rcor
respondi
ngpagel
ocat
ions

Oper
ati
onal
def
ini
ti
onoft
erms

Thepagewher
esi
gni
fi
cantt
ermsar
edef
inedi
nthecont
extoft
hest
udy
.
Abbr
evi
ati
ons

Thi
siswher
eal
labbr
evi
ati
onsandacr
ony
msr
elat
edt
othest
udyar
ewr
it
tenwi
tht
hei
r
f
ull
meani
ngs

Dedi
cat
ion

Thi
spagement
ionst
hebei
ng,per
sonorphenomenont
hest
udyi
sdedi
cat
edt
o.Thi
s
wr
it
tent
hef
ewestwor
ds,
usual
l
ynotmor
ethanoneort
wol
i
nes.

Acknowl
edgement
s

Thi
sisdev
otedt
oment
ioni
ngt
hosewhohel
pedi
nthesuccessf
ulcompl
eti
onoft
he
wor
k.

Abst
ract

Anabst
ractf
orar
esear
chpr
ojecti
smuchl
ongert
hant
hatofaj
our
nalpaper
.For
pr
oject
,itcanbeasl
ongas250wor
ds.Usual
l
ywr
it
teni
nasi
ngl
eli
nespaceandaf
ter
t
he f
ullr
epor
t has been compl
eted.I
t summar
izes t
he backgr
ound,pur
pose,
met
hodol
ogy
,resul
ts,
concl
usi
on,
impl
i
cat
ionsandr
ecommendat
ions

Mai
nRepor
t

CHAPTERONE:
INTRODUCTI
ON

Backgr
oundoft
hest
udy

Backgr
oundi
swher
ethepr
obl
em oft
hest
udyi
sint
roducedandf
ull
yexpl
ained.Quot
ing
aut
hor
it
ati
vesour
cesher
eisessent
ial
l
yneededt
osuppor
tthatt
hepr
esentst
udyi
s
r
equi
red.

St
atementofPr
obl
em

Thi
sindi
cat
eswhyt
her
eisagapt
hatt
hepr
esenti
nvest
igat
ioni
ssetoutt
ofi
l
l.

Ai
m andobj
ect
ives
Theai
m oft
hest
udy(
whi
chi
sal
way
sone)andt
hespeci
fi
cobj
ect
ivesemanat
ingf
rom
t
hev
ari
abl
esf
ort
hest
udy
.

Resear
chquest
ions

Thesear
ethespeci
fi
cobj
ect
ivesconv
ert
edt
oint
err
ogat
iveexpr
essi
onsandneedt
obe
answer
edt
oar
ri
veatt
her
esear
chf
indi
ngs.

Resear
chhy
pot
heses

A hy
pot
hesi
s pr
ovi
des an educat
ed guess r
egar
ding t
he nat
ure oft
he expect
ed
r
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hev
ari
abl
es.

Si
gni
fi
canceoft
hest
udy

Thi
siswher
ether
esear
cherpoi
ntsoutt
hecont
ri
but
ionst
hest
udywoul
dmaket
o
exi
sti
ngknowl
edgeandt
othewi
dersoci
ety
.

Scopeanddel
i
mit
ati
on

Thi
sindi
cat
est
hewi
dthandbr
eadt
hthest
udypr
obl
em i
sabl
etomanage.

Li
mit
ati
ons

Thi
sbr
ingt
ofocusr
est
ri
ctedaspectoft
hepr
obl
em t
hest
udycanaddr
essandal
so
pr
ovi
dingconv
inci
ngr
easonsf
ort
her
est
ri
cti
ons.

CHAPTERTWO:
LITERATUREREVI
EW

I
ntr
oduct
ion

Undert
hissubsect
ionoft
hechapt
er,t
her
esear
cherpoi
ntsoutt
hepur
poseoft
he
r
evi
ewandal
sot
hosear
easbasedont
her
esear
chobj
ect
ivest
hatwi
l
lber
evi
ewed.

TheRev
iew

Li
ter
atur
ethati
srel
evantt
othepr
esentst
udyi
srev
iewedsoast
opr
ovi
deabasi
stot
he
pr
obl
em whi
chi
sal
sol
i
nkedt
othedat
acol
l
ect
ioni
nst
rumentf
ort
hei
ntendedst
udy
.In
t
her
evi
ew,
allaut
hor
sci
tedar
efi
nal
l
yaccount
edf
orundert
hel
i
stof‘
ref
erences’
att
he
begi
nni
ngoft
heendmat
ter
.

CHAPTERTHREE:
RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY

Resear
chdesi
gn

Thi
sef
fect
ivel
ydescr
ibest
hedesi
gnf
ort
hest
udyandatt
hesamet
ime,cl
ear
lypoi
nts
outwhati
nfor
mst
hechoi
ceoft
hedesi
gn.

Popul
ati
onf
ort
hest
udy

I
nthi
s subsect
ion,t
he r
esear
cherexpl
ains t
he t
otalnumberofper
sons,ev
ent
s,
const
ruct
s,et
c.aboutwhi
cht
hest
udyi
sconcer
ned.

Sampl
i
ngt
echni
queandsampl
esi
ze

Becauset
hewhol
epopul
ati
oni
ssol
arge,asampl
eist
aken.So,notonl
ydoest
his
sect
ionment
ionst
hesubsect
ionoft
heent
ir
epopul
ati
oni
nvol
vedi
nthest
udy
,buti
t
al
sodescr
ibesi
t.

Met
hodofdat
acol
l
ect
ion

Al
soknownasi
nst
rument
ati
on,t
hissect
iondescr
ibest
hei
nst
rumentf
ort
her
esear
ch
whi
chi
ncl
udeobser
vat
ion,i
nter
view,quest
ionnai
reort
est
.Thesect
ionf
urt
herex
plai
ns
howt
hei
nst
rumenti
sconst
ruct
edandal
soj
ust
if
iesi
tsv
ali
dit
yanddegr
eeofr
eli
abi
l
ity
(
oft
enbywayofpi
l
otst
udy
).

Dat
aanal
yti
cal
procedur
e

Thi
sist
hesect
iont
hatbr
ief
lydi
scussest
hest
ati
sti
caldesi
gnwi
thwhi
cht
hedat
a
col
l
atedi
scomput
ed.

CHAPTERFOUR:
RESULTANALYSI
SANDI
NTERPRETATI
ON

Thi
sinv
olv
est
hedat
apr
esent
ati
onbymeansofanswer
ingr
esear
chquest
ionsand
t
est
ingr
esear
chhy
pot
heses(
ifany
).Thedat
aissummar
il
ypr
esent
edi
ntabl
esor
gr
aphsunderwhi
chbr
iefi
nter
pret
ati
onsf
oll
ow.

Di
scussi
on

Comment
sont
hepr
esent
edr
esul
tsandcompar
ingt
hem wi
thpr
evi
ousf
indi
ngsby
ot
herschol
ars.

CHAPTERFI
VE:
SUMMARY,
CONCLUSI
ONANDRECOMMENDATI
ONS

Summar
y

Thi
siswher
ether
esear
cherr
epor
tsal
lfi
ndi
ngssequent
ial
l
yinr
elat
iont
other
esear
ch
quest
ionsr
aisedi
nchapt
erone.

Li
mit
ati
ons

The sect
ion t
hati
dent
if
ies t
hose char
act
eri
sti
cs ofdesi
gn ormet
hodol
ogy t
hat
i
mpact
edori
nfl
uencedt
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hef
indi
ngsoft
her
esear
ch.

I
mpl
i
cat
ions

I
tsuggest
show t
hef
indi
ngsar
eimpor
tantt
opol
i
cy,t
heor
yandsubsequentr
esear
ch.
Thi
sis wher
eiti
sindi
cat
ed whet
herornott
he f
indi
ngs oft
he r
esear
ch ar
ein
consonancewi
tht
heor
y.

Concl
usi
on

I
nthel
i
ghtofwhatt
hest
udyf
oundout
,aconcl
usi
oni
spr
ovi
dedher
e.

Recommendat
ions

Thesear
esuggest
ionspr
off
eredt
oal
lthoseconcer
nedbasedont
hef
indi
ngsoft
he
r
esear
ch.I
nthi
ssect
ion,t
her
esear
chercoul
dal
sor
ecommendf
orcar
ryi
ngoutf
urt
her
r
esear
cht
ofi
l
lanyuncompl
etedgap.

EndMat
ter

Thi
sist
het
hir
dandl
astpar
tofar
esear
chpr
oject
.Iti
mmedi
atel
yfol
l
owst
hemai
n
r
epor
t.I
tmai
nlyconsi
stsofr
efer
encesandappendi
ces.
Ref
erences

I
tist
hel
i
stofal
laut
hor
sci
tedi
nthewor
kwr
it
teni
nal
phabet
icalor
deraccor
ding
sur
names.Ref
erencesar
enotexact
lyt
hesameas‘
bibl
i
ogr
aphy
’,whi
chi
nvol
vesbot
h
t
hoseci
tedandt
hosenotci
tedbutr
elev
antt
othest
udy
.

Appendi
ces

Thesear
einf
ormat
ionofsecondar
yimpor
tancet
hatcannotbeaccommodat
edi
nthe
mai
nrepor
t.

1.
2.2.
3LongEssay

Becauseal
ongessaysuchasa‘
Ter
m Paper
’isnotar
igor
ousr
esear
chact
ivi
ty,t
he
f
ormati
ssi
mpl
eandst
rai
ght
for
war
d.I
tispr
esent
edl
i
keanor
malcour
seassi
gnment
.
Exceptwher
eat
erm paperi
ssoext
ensi
vel
ydet
ail
ed,i
tdoesnotr
equi
ret
hel
uxur
yof
hav
ingsubheadi
ngs.I
nmostcases,i
tonl
yrequi
rest
het
it
le,st
udent
s’name,cour
se
code,cour
set
it
leandl
ect
urer
’sname.Thesear
efol
l
owedbyashor
tint
roduct
ionasa
subheadi
ng,
thent
hemai
nwor
kandconcl
usi
on.

Thet
erms‘
proj
ect
’,‘
thesi
s’and‘
disser
tat
ion’ar
einsomecasesusedi
nter
changeabl
y.
Howev
er,someacademi
cinst
it
uti
onsconsi
dera‘
proj
ect
’forabachel
or’
sdegr
ee,a
‘
thesi
s’f
oradegr
eeofmast
erand‘
disser
tat
ion’
foradoct
orat
edegr
ee.

Whi
l
ea‘
ter
m paper
’ismeantt
osat
isf
yapar
ti
cul
arcour
ser
equi
rementi
nagi
ven
semest
er,
a‘r
esear
chpr
oject
’at
ermi
nalwor
kasar
equi
rementi
napar
ti
alf
ulf
il
mentf
or
t
heawar
dofacer
ti
fi
cat
ebef
oregr
aduat
ion.At
erm paperi
sapr
eludet
oapr
oject
wr
it
ing;
and,
ther
efor
e,muchshor
tert
hant
hel
att
er.

1.
3SomeTechni
cal
Ter
msassoci
atedwi
thResear
ch

ACSAmer
icanChemi
cal
Soci
ety

APATheAmer
icanPsy
chol
ogi
cal
Associ
ati
on
ASAAmer
icanSoci
ologi
cal
Associ
ati
on

CBECounci
lofBi
ologyEdi
tor
s(nowknownasCounci
lofSci
enceEdi
tor
s[CSE]
)

Cl
assi
cSt
yle ofEnt
ryThe out
moded sy
stem ofr
efer
enci
ng.Al
though noti
n use
pr
esent
ly,cl
assi
cent
rywhi
chi
sofLat
inor
igi
nisav
ail
abl
einbookswr
it
tenabout40
y
ear
sago.Exampl
esar
e1.I
bid/
Ib/
Ibi
dem (
samepl
ace)andOpci
t/
Locci
t(samepl
ace,
di
ff
erentpl
ace,
samepl
ace)

CMSChi
cagoManual
Sty
le

CSECounci
lofSci
enceEdi
tor
s(f
ormer
lyknownasCounci
lofBi
ologyEdi
tor
s[CBE]
).

Di
rectquot
ati
onWor
dsofanot
herper
soncopi
edv
erbat
im.I
flong,
thequot
eisi
ndent
ed
buti
fisl
esst
hant
hreel
i
nes,
thequot
eisputi
nquot
ati
onmar
kswi
thoutbei
ngi
ndent
ed.

Endnot
eFur
therr
emar
konani
ssuebutcomi
ngatt
heendoft
hechapt
erorsect
ion

Foot
not
esI
tissocal
l
edbecausei
tiswr
it
tenatt
hebot
tom oft
her
elev
antpage.I
t
compr
isesaddi
ti
onalnot
es/
remar
konapar
ti
cul
ari
ssueal
readyi
ndi
cat
ed wi
than
ast
eri
sk.

I
EEEI
nst
it
uteofEl
ect
ri
cal
andEl
ect
roni
csEngi
neer
ing

I
nter
pol
ati
onComment
sorcl
ari
fi
cat
ionaddedi
nbr
acket
stoquot
ati
ons.

I
n-t
extci
tat
ionThef
orm ofr
efer
enci
ngwi
thi
nthet
ext
.Iti
stheactofr
epor
ti
ngwhat
somebodysay
sbywr
it
ingt
hei
rsur
name(
s)wi
thy
earofpubl
i
cat
ioni
nbr
acket
sor
f
oll
owedbycommai
fsur
namei
sal
readyi
nbr
acket
s.

MLAModer
nLanguagesAssoci
ati
on

OWLOnl
i
neWr
it
ingLab

Par
aphr
aseAl
soknownasi
ndi
rectci
tat
ion,par
aphr
asei
sre-
expr
essi
onoft
heor
igi
nal
wor
kforabet
terunder
standi
ngandt
oav
oidt
oomanyquot
ati
ons/
re-
wor
dingofapi
ece
ofwr
it
ingt
omakei
teasi
ert
ounder
stand.
Per
iodi
calLi
ter
atur
eAcat
egor
yofser
ialpubl
i
cat
ionappear
ingonar
egul
arschedul
e
(
weekl
y,mont
hly orquar
ter
ly)
.Exampl
es ar
e magazi
nes,bul
l
eti
ns,gazet
tes and
newsl
ett
ers.

Pl
agi
ari
sm Al
soknownas‘
academi
cthef
t’
,pl
agi
ari
sm i
stheof
fence/
actoft
aki
ng
someoneel
se’
sideasasi
fiti
sone’
sown.

Tr
ipl
eEnt
ryName,
year
,Pagenumber

1.
4Ref
erenci
ng

Forourpur
posei
nthi
scour
se,r
efer
enci
ngi
scompl
etel
ydev
otedt
otheAmer
ican
Psy
chol
ogi
cal
Associ
ati
on(
APA)f
ormat
.

1.
4.1I
n-t
extr
efer
enci
ng/
cit
ati
on

Basedont
heAPAci
tat
ionmanual
,thef
oll
owi
nggui
del
i
nesar
enecessar
ywhenmaki
ng
ci
tat
ionswi
thi
nthemai
nrepor
t.

1.Uset
heaut
hor
’ssur
name,
dat
efor
matt
hroughout
.

2.Use‘
and’
toj
oint
hesur
namesofmul
ti
pleaut
hor
s.

3.Useamper
sand(
&)i
npar
ent
het
icmat
eri
als,i
ntabl
esandi
nthef
inalr
efer
ence
l
i
st.

4.Forawor
kaut
hor
edbyacor
por
atebody
,wr
it
etheent
ir
enamei
nful
latt
he
begi
nni
ngi
nbr
acket
sandt
hei
nit
ial
sencl
osedi
nasquar
ebr
acket
.

5.Thenuseonl
ythei
nit
ial
ssubsequent
ly.

6.Whent
heaut
hori
sanony
mous,
indi
cat
eso(
Anony
mous,
year
).

7.Wher
e mul
ti
ple aut
hor
s hav
e same sur
names,use t
hei
rini
ti
als bef
oret
he
sur
name.

8.Whenaut
hori
snotment
ioned,i
ntheor
igi
nalsour
ce,ci
teusi
ngt
hef
ir
stt
hree
wor
dsf
rom t
het
it
le.
 9.Wi
thmor
ethant
woaut
hor
s,ment
ional
lini
ti
all
y;andsubsequent
ly,
ment
iononl
y
t
hef
ir
stf
oll
owedby‘
etal
’
.

10.
Dif
fer
entwor
ksbysameaut
horwi
thi
nthesamey
earar
edi
sti
ngui
shedbya,
b,c,
d.

11.
Twoormor
ewor
ksbyt
hesameaut
hor
(s)ar
ear
rangedi
ntheor
derofy
earof
publ
i
cat
ion.

12.
Twoormor
ewor
ksbydi
ff
erentaut
hor
sci
tedi
nthesamepar
ent
hesesar
eli
sted
al
phabet
ical
l
yusi
ngsemi
col
onst
osepar
atet
hest
udi
es.

13.
Whenawor
kinsecondar
ysour
cei
sdi
scussed,
simpl
yment
iont
heor
igi
nalwor
k
andci
tet
hesecondar
ysour
ce.

14.
Wit
hadi
rectquot
e,whet
herornoti
ndent
ed,i
ndi
cat
ethepagenumberoft
he
r
elev
antsour
cei
nbr
acket
simmedi
atel
yaf
tert
hequot
ati
on.

15.
Asmuchaspossi
bleusepar
aphr
asei
nthei
n-t
extci
tat
iont
omi
nimi
zet
oomany
di
rectquot
ati
onsev
ery
wher
einy
ourmai
nrepor
t.

1.
4.2Ref
erenceLi
st

1.
4.1.
1Nonel
ect
roni
cbasedsour
ce

Ev
eryci
tat
ioni
nthet
extmustbeaccount
edf
ori
nthe‘
Ref
erences’
sect
ionatt
heendof
t
hewor
k.Si
ncewhaty
ouhav
eisRef
erencesandnotBi
bli
ogr
aphy
,youcannotaf
for
dto
addanysuggest
edr
eadi
ngsot
hert
hant
hoseci
tedi
nthewor
k.Forr
efer
encel
i
st,t
he
f
oll
owi
nggui
desar
eessent
ial
.

1.Forasi
ngl
e-aut
hor
edbook,wr
it
etheaut
hor
’ssur
name,comma,i
nit
ial
(s)wi
th
dot
(s)
,yeari
n br
acket
s,dot
,book t
it
lei
nit
ali
cs comma ordot
,pl
ace of
publ
i
cat
ioncol
ont
henpubl
i
sher
’snameanddot
.

Exampl
es
Hedge,
T.( .Wr
1991) it
ing.NewYor
k:Oxf
ord.

Hensen,
J.( .WhenWr
1987) it
ersRead.U.
S.A:
Hei
nenmannEducat
ional
BooksI
nc.

U.
S.A:
Hei
nenmannEducat
ional
BooksI
nc.

2.Forat
woaut
hor
edbook,
sameasi
nasi
ngl
eaut
hor
edwor
kbutsepar
atet
hef
ir
st
andt
hesecondaut
horwi
thcommaandanamper
sand.

Exampl
es

Hut
chi
nson,
T.,&Water
s,A(2004)
.Engl
i
shf
orSpeci
fi
cPur 19thedi
poses( ti
on)
.Cambr
idge:
Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
yPress.

Locker,K.O.,
&Skienzl
er,
D.S.(2008)
.Admini
str
ati
veandBusi
nessCommuni
cat
i 7th
on(
Edit
ion)
,NewYork:McGrawHi l
l
sPubl
i
shers.

3.Formor
ethant
woaut
hor
s,sameasi
nat
wo-
aut
hor
edbookbutst
il
lremembert
o
putanamper
sandaf
teracommabef
oret
hel
astcont
ri
but
or’
ssur
name.

4.Fora mul
ti
vol
ume wor
k,i
ndi
cat
ethe v
olume numberi
n br
acket
sin Ar
abi
c
numer
alsi
mmedi
atel
yaf
tert
het
it
le.

Exampl
es

Hut
chi
nson,
T.,&Water
s,A(2004)
.Engl
i
shf
orSpeci
fi
cPur 19thedi
poses( ti
on)
.Cambr
idge:
Cambr
idgeUni
ver
sit
yPress.

Locker,K.O.,
&Skienzl
er,
D.S.(2008)
.Admini
str
ati
veandBusi
nessCommuni
cat
i 7th
on(
Edit
ion)
,NewYork:McGrawHi l
l
sPubl
i
shers.

5.Putanamper
sand(
&)not‘
and’bet
weent
hesecondt
othel
astandt
hel
ast
aut
hor
’snames.
6.Foraj
our
nalar
ti
cle,wr
it
etheaut
hor
’ssur
namef
oll
owedbycommaandi
nit
ial
s,
y
eari
nbr
acket
s,t
it
leofar
ti
clei
nit
ali
cscommav
olumenumberandpages
cov
eredeg6(
2),
265–273

Exampl
es

7.Forachapt
ercont
ri
but
ionoranedi
tedwor
k,wr
it
ether
elev
antaut
hor
’ssur
name,
comma,i
nit
ial
s,y
eari
nbr
acket
s,t
it
leofr
elev
antchapt
er/
sect
ioni
nquot
ati
on
mar
ks,
commat
hewor
d‘i
n’col
on,
edi
tor
’snameEdi
nbr
acket
s,t
it
leoft
hebook,
comma,
pagescov
eredi
nbr
acket
s,pl
aceofpubl
i
cat
ion,
publ
i
sher
’sname.

8.Forconf
erencepr
oceedi
ngs,wr
it
etheaut
hor
’ssur
name,comma,i
nit
ial
s,y
eari
n
br
acket
s,t
it
le,
int
it
leofpr
oceedi
ngs,
occasi
on,
placeanddat
e,pagescov
ered.

9.Foranewspaper
,ar
ti
clewr
it
er’
sname(
ifav
ail
abl
e,i
fnot
,thef
ir
stt
hreewor
ds
f
rom t
het
it
le)
,papername,y
eari
nbr
acket
s,t
it
le,comma,dayandmont
h,page
l
ocat
ion.

10.
Forgov
ernmentdocument
s(asi
nnewspaperf
oll
owedbyv
olumenumber
).

11.
Ifi
tisagov
ernmentpol
i
cydocument
,putt
het
it
leoft
hepol
i
cyi
ntheposi
ti
onof
t
heaut
hor
’sname.

12.
Forast
andal
onedocumentt
hatdoesnoti
ndi
cat
eanyy
earofpubl
i
cat
ion,
simpl
y
wr
it
e’nd’
int
hepl
aceoft
hey
ear
.

13.Wher
eadocumentdoesnotcar
ryt
henameoft
heaut
hor
(s)
,begi
nwi
tht
it
le.

14.I
faj
our
nali
saccept
edf
orpubl
i
cat
ionbutst
il
linpr
ess,wr
it
e‘I
npr
ess’i
nthe
posi
ti
onf
ory
earbutdonoti
ndi
cat
eyear
,vol
umenumberorpagenumberunt
il
t
hedocumenti
spubl
i
shed.

15.
Ifmanuscr
ipti
ssubmi
tt
edf
orpubl
i
cat
ionbutnoty
etaccept
ed,wr
it
etheaut
hor
,
 y
eari
nbr
acket
s,t
it
leandput‘
manuscr
iptsubmi
tt
edf
orpubl
i
cat
ion’butdowr
it
e
t
hej
our
nal
ort
hepubl
i
sher
’sname.

16.I
ftheunpubl
i
shedmanuscr
ipti
sast
udent
’spr
oject
,af
teraut
hor
’sname,
yeari
n
br
acket
sandt
it
le,
put‘
unpubl
i
shedpr
ojectandt
hei
nst
it
uti
on’
sname.

17.Aut
hor
’st
it
lessuchasMr
,Mr
s,Dr
,Pr
ofessor
,Deaconar
ecompl
etel
yomi
tt
ed.

1.
4.1.
2El
ect
roni
cbasedMat
eri
al

18.Wr
it
ethesour
ce(
websi
te)ofanyi
nter
netbased mat
eri
al(
eg.Av
ail
abl
eat
ht
tp:
//www.
..
).

19.
Ify
ouf
eelt
hatt
hecont
entofani
nter
netbaseddocumenthaschanged,
indi
cat
e
t
hedat
eofr
etr
iev
alal
ongwi
tht
hesour
ceoft
hedocument
;eg.Ret
ri
evedonJune
24,
2021f
rom:
htt
p:/
/www.
..

20.
Ifadocumenti
sret
ri
evedf
rom anor
gani
zat
ionsuchasani
nst
it
uti
onalwebsi
te,
t
hehostor
gani
zat
ionandr
elev
antpr
ogr
ammeshoul
dbei
dent
if
iedbef
oreci
ti
ng
t
hewebaddr
ess;
eg.AbubakarTaf
awaBal
ewaUni
ver
sit
ypor
tal

Websi
te:
htt
p:/
/www…

EXERCI
SES

I
:Readt
heabst
ractofar
esear
chpaperbel
owandanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
owi
t.

(1)Epidemiologicaldat aonBov i
neBr ucellosi sarescant yint hisar ea.Itisani nfecti
on
usual ycausedbyv
l iobarsofBr ucell
aabor t us,especi all
ywher ecat tl
ear ekepti nclose
associ at
ionwi thsheepandgoat s.(2)Thepr esentst udywasi ntendedt odet ermi nethe
prev al
enceoft hedi seasesoast osuppl ementt heexi stingdat a.(3)At otalof150
bloodandmi lksampl eswer ecol l
ectedf r om cat t
lei nv ari
ousf arms.Thesampl es
collectedwer ecar efull
ypackagedandi ncubat edat37degr eesCent i
gradein5–10%
for6weeks.( 4)Outoft he150bl oodandmi lksampl espr ocessed,3bul lsand1cow
wer efoundposi t
iveforBr ucel
l
ai nfecti
onf rom bl oodcul ture.(5)I nthelightoft her esul
t,
i
tcanbei nf
er redt hat,t
hel ow prevalenceoft hediseasei sl argelyattri
butabl et othe
l
ev elofawar enessoft heFulaniandHausaher dsmen.( 6)Iti s,therefore,st rongl
y
obser vedthatcat tleherdsmenshoul dal way sensur er egularv accinati
onofcat tl
eand
promptt reat
mentoft heinfect
edones.
QUESTIONS
1.Anumberi sbol dl
yassignedtoeachoft hesub-secti
onsoft
heabstract(numbered
1t o 6).I denti
fyand wr ite down iny ouranswerbookletwhateach number
representsfrom thefoll
owing:
a.sy nopsis,b.r esume,c.concl usion,d.preface,e.mater
ial
sand met hod,f.
dependentv ariabl
e,g.purpose,h.backgr
ound,i.r
ecommendati
on,j.discussi
on,
k.result
,l.appendix

2.From theabstract,i
denti
fyandwr i
tedownany4pastpassi
vet
ensest
hatexpr
ess
part
icular
/speci
ficprocedur
aldescr
ipt
ion.

Re-or
gani
sethefol
l
owi
ngl
i
stofr
efer
encesaccor
dingt
other
ecentedi
ti
onofAPA
Cit
ati
onManual
.

1.In1981Al
mudeefPr i
nti
ngPr essBauchipubl
ishedabook t i
tled“
OralPoet
ry
edi
tedbyI
brahi
m Yar
oYahay awi t
hMuhammadSul e,Nasi
ruSali
huandGodwin
Emmanuel
’schapt
ercontr
ibut
ionti
tled“TheHausaPoet”Cover
ingPages139to
156.

2.The book of Fati

ma Sani-
Rabi
u ret
ri
eved on October 19, 2019 f
rom
htt
p:/
/epr
ints.
mg/
11872/
71/wit
hthet
it
leGlobalwar
mingtoday
:Causes,
eff
ect
s
andsolut
ions.

3.Towardst heendofAugust2013, t
hear t
icl
eofProf
essorMosesAdebay oAremu
andMrJohnPet er’
sart
icl
eappear edintheIf
eJournalofHumanit
iesandSoci al
Studi
es,Vol ume1,Number2.Thet i
tl
eoft hearti
cleisNiger
ianismsi nt he
Engli
sh language usage bysel ected Pent
ecost
alpreacher
si n southwestern
Niger
ia.Thear t
iclebegi
nsfrom page85andendsonpage103.

4.Abookti
tl
ed‘
myl i
fe’cont
ainsthel
i
feofSirAhmaduBel
l
oin1962.I
twasf
ir
st
publ
i
shedi
nLondonbyCambr i
dgeUniv
ersi
tyPr
ess.

I
II:Matcheachoft hetermsassoci atedwi thresearch( numberedinRomannumer als)
withthesui
tabl
edef i
nit
ion(i
nlett
erlists)thatmostappr opr i
atel
yrefl
ectsit
.
i. Sampling ii
.Met hodology i
ii
.Di scussion iv.Bibli
ography v.
Recommendat i
on v i.Var i
able v i
i.Appendi ces v ii
i
.Pr el
iminari
es ix.
Acknowledgementx.Ti t
lepage
DEFINITI
ONS
(a).Inf
ormati
on ofsecondar yi mpor tance and provided as an end mat t
er; (b).
Ment i
oni
ngofal lthosewhohel ped,inany way ,inthesuccessf ulcompl eti
onofthe
study; ( c).Acommentont heresultandal sohi ghl i
ght ssomepr ev i
ousf i
ndingsof
otherschol arsr elevanttot hepresentst udy;( d).Thepr ocedureadopt edintheint he
studyinvol vi
ngdesi gnfordat agatheri
ngandanal ysis; ( e).
Thenamegi ventothef ir
st
pageofat hesis; ( f)
.Apr ocessinwhichapor t
ionoft heent i
repopulationiscarefully
select
edasar epr esentationofthewhol e;( g).Acondi tiont hatobt
ainsatagi vent i
me
andwhi chmayv aryast imegoeson; ( h).Informat i
onpr ovi
dedbefor ethemai nrepor t
ofapr ojectandusual l
yt hepagenumber sofwhi char enumber edinr omannumer als;
(i
).Adet ailedli
stofwor kscitedaswel last hosenotci tedbutar erelevanttothet opic;
(j
).Provi
di ngsuggest i
on( s)toimproveexi st
ingcondi tions

PARTI
I:FUNCTI
ONALWRI
TING

1.
2.1Descr
ipt
ion

Descr
ipt
ionofpl
aces,scenes,obj
ect
sandpr
ocessesar
enotsost
rai
ght
for
war
d.To
descr
ibe,
thewr
it
erhast
obel
ogi
cal
,or
gani
zedandsequent
ial
.Thewr
it
eri
srequi
redt
o
begi
nfr
om gener
alt
ospeci
fi
c;f
rom whol
etopar
t;f
rom l
arget
osmal
l
;fr
om out
sidet
o
i
nsi
de;
topt
obot
tom andf
rom l
eftt
ori
ght
.Apar
tfr
om descr
ibi
ngaper
sonal
i
ty,
phy
sical
f
eat
ureoral
ocat
ion,whi
chor
dinar
il
yrequi
rest
heuseofpr
esentsi
mpl
etense(
is/
are)
,
t
her
ear
eal
sogener
al(
procedur
al)andspeci
fi
corpar
ti
cul
ardescr
ipt
ions.

1.
2.1.
1Gener
alDescr
ipt
ion

Bot
hgener
alandpar
ti
cul
ardescr
ipt
ions,
whi
char
eourmai
nconcer
n,ar
eobj
ect
iveand
hi
ghl
yimper
sonal
.Theyar
e,t
her
efor
e,wr
it
teni
nthepassi
vev
oice.Gener
aldescr
ipt
ion
i
sthedescr
ipt
ionofapr
ocessorpr
ocedur
e.So,
thepr
esentpassi
vet
ense(
is/
are+v
erb
st
em +ed/
en)i
sused.Bel
owi
sanexampl
e.

HOW APAPERI SMADE

1.Thetr
eesar efelledorcutdown.
2.Thebranchesandl eavesar eremov ed.
3.Thetr
eesar etranspor t
edt othesawmi ll
.
4.Thebarkisstri
ppedf r
om t hetrunks.
5.Thetr
unksar esawni ntologs.
6.Theyareconvey edt othepapermi l
l.
7.Theyareplacedi ntheshr edder.
8.Theyarecutintosmal lchi
ps.
 9.Theyaremi xedwi t
hwat erandacid.
10.
Theyareheat edandcr ushedt oaheav ypulp.
11.
Thiswoodpul piscleaned.
12.
Iti
salsochemi call
ybleachedt owhit
enit.
13.
Iti
spassedt hroughrollerstof l
att
enit
.
14.
Sheetsofwetpaperar epr oduced.
15.
Thewat eri
sr emovedf rom t hesheet
s.
16.
Thesesheet sarepressed,dr i
edandrefi
nedunti
lthef
ini
shedi
s
produced.

Now,under
li
neal
lthev
erbswr
it
teni
npr
esentpassi
vet
ense.Thef
actt
hatt
het
exti
sa
gener
aldescr
ipt
ionsuggest
sthatt
hepr
ocedur
etakespl
aceev
ery
wher
eandatanyt
ime.
I
nor
dert
oli
nkt
hesent
ences,sequencemar
ker
s,al
soknownassequencer
s(f
ir
st,
i
nit
ial
l
y,t
obegi
nwi
th,next
,att
hesamet
ime,subsequent
ly,t
hen,f
inal
l
y,l
ast
ly,et
c),
usual
l
ypl
acedat
,ornear
,thebegi
nni
ngofasent
encecoul
dal
sobeused.Howev
er,
whendescr
ibi
ngapr
ocess,t
opr
oduceasent
encef
oreachst
ep;sucht
hatev
ery
sent
encement
ionsonest
ep;
andal
sohav
ingal
mostt
hesameshapei
sof
tenbor
ing.So,
i
tissomet
imemor
elogi
calandmuchcl
ear
ert
oputsev
eralst
epsi
nasi
ngl
esent
ence.
Thi
sisbecauseagoodwr
it
erdoesnotal
way
sneedsequencer
stocommuni
cat
e
ef
fect
ivel
y.I
tisgener
all
yassumedt
hat
,real
i
sti
cal
l
yspeaki
ngt
henat
uralor
deroft
he
pr
ocessandt
her
eader
’sknowl
edgeoft
hewor
ldwoul
dpr
ovi
det
her
equi
redi
nsi
ghtt
hat
f
aci
l
itat
esasmoot
hunder
standi
ng.Takeal
ookatt
heexampl
ebel
ow.

Oneoft heearl
iestatt
emptsatsolarheati
ngwast heDov erHouse,desi
gned by
DrMar
iaTilkesandEleanorRay mond,andbuil
tin1949.
I
nt hishouse,energyfrom t
hesunisabsorbedbyal argeareaof
blackenedmet alsheetscoveredbydoubleplat
esofgl ass.Befor
e
theheatcanbebl ownaroundthehouseitmustf i
rstbestoredin
l
arget ankscontaini
ngGlauber’
ssalt
,agivenvolumeofwhi chcan
holdeightandahal fti
mesmor eheatthanwater.

Equal
ly,t
o avoi
d unnecessar
yr epet
it
ionofcer t
ainsubj
ect
s,r
elat
ivepronounsand
rel
ati
vecl
ausesareused.Forexample,sent
ences1and2canbemer gedi
ntooneasin
number3.

1.Thebarki
sst
rippedf
rom thet
runks.
2.Thetr
unksar
esawnintologs.
3.t
hebar
kisst
ri
ppedf
rom t
het
runkswhi
char
esawni
ntol
ogs.

1.
2.1.
2.Par
ti
cul
ar/
Speci
fi
cDescr
ipt
ion

Ver
ygoodexampl
esofaspeci
fi
cdescr
ipt
ionar
eobv
iousi
nlabor
ator
yorwor
kshop
r
epor
tsi
nwhi
chcasest
hewr
it
erexpl
ainswhathappeneddur
ingapar
ti
cul
arev
entata
par
ti
cul
art
ime.Ther
efor
e,t
hepastpassi
vet
ense(
was/
wer
e+v
erb+en/
ed)i
sof
ten
used.Passi
vev
oicei
schosent
odeper
sonal
i
zet
hei
nfor
mat
ion.Howev
er,whent
he
wr
it
erwant
stoav
oiddi
stancebet
weent
heact
orandt
heact
ion,act
ivev
oicecoul
dbe
used.Readt
hef
oll
owi
ngexampl
es.

1.Thel
i
qui
dwasheat
edi
nat
estt
ubeandr
eagentwasadded(
PASSI
VE)
.
2.Ther
esul
tswer
etabul
ated,andt
hent
hef
oll
owi
ngconcl
usi
onwer
ereached
(
PASSI
VE)
.
3.The swi
tch K wast
hen cl
osed and an accur
ate bal
ance pr
int(
was)f
ound
(
PASSI
VE)
.
4.Thef
ourr
eact
orswet
est
edi
nthewor
krepor
tedher
eal
lcont
ainedapl
ati
num
cat
aly
st(
ACTI
VE)
Now,changet
hef
oll
owi
ngsent
encesbel
ow t
osui
tst
andar
dfor
matf
orl
abor
ator
y
r
epor
twr
it
ing.
1.Wei
ghtadr
yst
opper
ed50ml
flaskandi
ntr
oduce2.
5gofaci
d.
2.Ti
ght
ent
het
hreadonacl
amp
3.Useamet
rer
ulet
omeasur
evar
iousl
engt
hsof100cm,80cm,40cm and20cm
r
espect
ivel
y.
Answer
1.Adr
yst
opper
ed50ml
flaskwaswei
ght
edand2.
5kgofaci
dwasi
ntr
oduced.
2.Thet
hreadwast
ight
enedonacl
amp
3.Var
iousl
engt
hsof100cm,80cm,40cm and20cm wer
emeasur
edwi
thamet
re
r
ule.
I
tisal
sopossi
blet
oshor
tencer
tai
npassi
veconst
ruct
ions.Seeexampl
ebel
ow.
1.t
hedat
awer
ecol
l
ect
edandt
heywer
eanal
ysed.
2.Thedat
awer
ecol
l
ect
edandanal
ysed.
1.2.
2Def init
ion
Def i
nit
ioni st hepr ocessofexpl ainingmeani ngofaconceptoraphenomenon.Ther e
are t hr ee ki nds of def initi
on. These ar e 1. Real /
formal def i
nition, 2.
Name/ nomi nal /nami ngdef initionand3.Expandeddef initi
on
1.2.
2.1Real /
For mal def inition
Thiskindofdef i
ni t
ionbegi nswi thconceptbei ngdef ined,foll
owedbyv erb,t hent he
general classt owhi cht heconceptbel ongs, andf inall
yar el
ati
ve(wh- )clause.
(concept+v erb[ i
s/ ar e]+gener alclass+wh-cl ause) .
1.Bi ologyi sthesci encewhi chdeal swi tht hephy sical l
if
eofani mal sandpl ant s.
2.Apar asi t
eisanor gani sm whi chl ivesf oral l orpar tofit
slif
eonori n
anotheror gani sm.
1.2.
2.2Nomi nal /namedef i
nition
Thegener alf eature/ char acter i
stic/ classf ollowedbyar el
ati
ve( wh-)cl auset henv erb
andf i
nal l
yt heconceptdef i
ned.( gener al class+wh-cl ause+v er
b[is/
ar e]+concept )
1.Thesci encewhi chdeal swi tht hephy sicall i
feofani malandpl antsi scal led
Bi ology .
2.Anor gani sm whi chl iv
esf oral lorpar tofi tsl i
feonori nanot heror gani sm is
knownasapar asi te.
1.2.
2.3Expandeddef initi
on
This kind ofdef inition i s cal l
ed because i tcombi nes a def i
niti
on wi th an added
explanationsuchasexampl e.
1.Thesci encewhi chdeal swi tht hephy sicall i
feofani malandpl antsi scal led
Bi ologyt hebr anchesofwhi char eBot any ,EcologyandZool ogy .
2.Apar asi t
ei sanor gani sm whi chl i
v esf oral lorpar tofi t
sl i
feonori nanot her
or gani sm f rom whi ch i tder i
v es some benef its such as f ood,shel t erand
pr otect ion.
3.Cour tshi pisani nnat epat ternofbehav iours-suchasdanci ng,pr eeni ng,or
br ingingnest ingmat erials-whi chcer tainv er tebratescarryoutbef oremat i
ng.

NB:1.Al
waysavoidomit
ti
nganimpor
tantelementwhenwr
it
ingdef
ini
ti
on;and,2.
Avoi
dgiv
inganexampl
eonlyi
npl
aceofdefi
niti
on.

1.3 Exempl i
ficat i
on
Whenexampl esar epr ovi
dedi ntheprocessofdef ini
ngsomet hingasi nexpanded
defi
nition,theacti sknownasexempl i
fi
cation.Asent encemi ghtuseexampl et o
compl etei tsmeani ng.Thisi softenassoci atedwi thsent enceswhi chmakev ery
widegener ali
sat ions.Exampl esareusuallythedet ail
edellaborations( theexampl es)
emanat i
ngf rom t het opicsentence.Apartfrom givingdefiniti
ons, exampl esareal so
possibleinot heri nstancessuchasst at
ement sreferr
ingtoqual ity,featureorhabi t
.
Thesei ncludeef fortstosuppor tanasserti
on.Forexampl e,
1.Limest oner egionsi nmanyr egionsoft hewor l
dcont ainscav es(exampl esar e
r
equi red).
2.Ther ear ethr eer easonswhyIwantt obeeducat edListrequired) .
Commonmar ker s/connect iv
esf orexemplif
icationar e‘f
orexampl e’,‘f
ori nst
ance’,‘as
shown by’
,‘par
ti
cul
arl
y’
,‘such as’
,‘a casein poi
nt’
,‘an example’and ‘
i
ll
ust
rat
ion’
.
Exempl
ifi
cat
ioncanal
sotakeplacewithoutt
heuseofconnect i
ves.Eg,

Thecolourofstalacti
tesi
sdeterminedbyt henat
ureofthesurroundi
ngrocks.where
thesurr
oundingrockscontai
ncopper ,thestal
act
it
esaregreen.Thepresenceofiron
makest hestal
actit
espaleyel
low.Inlimestonear
easwhichdonotcont ai
ncopperor
i
ron,t
hestalact
it
esar eyel
l
oworbr own.

1.4 Classi fi
cation/Division
Classi
ficationr eferstot hedi visi
onofitemsi ntoclasses, cat egories,groupsorfamili
es
ont hebasi sofacer taini dent i
fi
ablecri
teri
onorsev eralcr iter
ia( habit
,colour,ori
gin,
shape,si ze,et c).Cl assifi
cat i
on essays gr oup object s/people/ phenomena/animals
accordingt ot hechar acter i
sti
cst heyshare-usuall
yagr oupt osubgr oups.Theprocess
requir
est hef oll
owi ng:
i. Establishasubj ect-selectatopicwithagener algroupi ngt obeclassi
fi
edinto
groups;
ii
. Prov i
despeci ficdet ail
sthatfor
m abasi sofcl assificati
on;
ii
i. Uset ransiti
onal wor dst ohel
preaderf ol
l
owt hecausal anal ysi
s;and,
iv. Dr awconcl usionconcer ni
ngthegr oupsandsubgr oups.

To cl assifyi t
ems ef fecti
vely well
,t he di sti
ngui shing f eatures hav et o be cl early
determi ned.Fori nst ance,animalscoul dbecat egorizedaccor dingtov ertebratesand
i
nv ertebrates,eachofwhi chi sfurt
herdi vi
dedi nt osubgr oups.Thecommonestwayof
classifi
cationi sthr oughadi agram whi chi sint erpretedi nat ext.Thef irststagei s
alway shav ingat opicsent encewi t
hat itl
erelatingt ot heessayorbywayofpr ovidi
nga
thesisst atementi ndicati
ngt hemaingr oupt hatwi llbecl assif
iedint osubgroups.
Basi cwor dsusedi nclassifi
cati
onar e:cat egories, categor i
se,classes,classify,divi
sion,
divide,items,itemi ze,ar r
angement ,ar range,di stinction,disti
ngui sh,di
fference,di f
fer,
fallinto,or der
,kinds,t y
pes,member s,consi stsof …,compr ises,divi
dedi nt
o,f urt
her
subdi vi
ded, andclassi fi
edaccor di
ngt o/ onthebasi sof …

1.5 Compar i
sonandCont r
ast
Compar isoni sinvol
vedwhent al
kingorwr i
tingaboutt
woper sons,object
s,orideasin
ordertoest abli
shsimil
ar i
tiesanddiff
erencesbetween/amongt hem inter
msofcer tai
n
characteri
stics.Compar i
son inv
olves moret han one t
hing exceptint he ef
fortto
compar eanaspectoft hatthi
ngwi thanotheraspectofthesamet hi
ng.Eg.Colourof
theflowerbudandt heleavesoft hesamepl ant.

1.
5.1 Compar
ison:
Theey
eandt
hecamer
a

1.Thecameraandtheeyearesi
mil
arinmanyaspect
s.
2.Theybot
hneedli
ghtraysinor
dert
of unct
ion.
3.Bothhav
easensiti
vesurf
aceonwhichtheimagei
sfor
med.
4.I
ntheeye,t
heimageisformedonthereti
na.
 5.Inthecamer atheimage, theimageisformedont hef i
l
m.
6.Asinthecamer a,t
hei mageont her
etinaisinver
ted.
7.Boththeey eandt hecamer ahaveal enswhi chfocusest
hei
mageont
he
sensit
ivesurface.
8.Inthecamer a,thelensmov esbackwardsandf orwards.
9.Intheeye,thecurvatureofthelensi
schar ged.
I
10.nthi
srespect ,
theey edif
fersfr
om thecamer a.

Now,i denti
fyf r
om t he10sentencesabove,thosewhichshowsimil
ari
tyandt hosethat
i
ndicatedifference.
1.5.2 Cont rast
As an aspectofcompar i
son,contr
astdescr i
bes anyobser
vabletrai
t( behaviour,
characteri
stics,colour,
etcinli
vi
ngandnon-li
v i
ngthi
ngs.Whil
ecompari
sonr evealsboth
si
mi l
arit
iesanddi ffer
ences,cont
rastpoi
ntsoutanemphasi sont hediff
erencesonl y
.
Contrastis,therefore,
anaspectofcompar i
son.Seeanexamplebel
ow.

Pl
ant
sandAni mals
Therearesev er
al char
acter
isti
csthatdist
ingui
shpl ant
sfrom animal s.
Greenpl antsar
eabl etomanuf act
uretheirownf ood.Theyusesubst ances
intheenv ir
onment .Thi
sprocessisknownasphot osy
nthesi
s.Incont rast,
allanimals,i
ncludingman, gett
heirownfoodeit herdi
rectl
yfrom plantsor
indir
ectl
ybyeat inganimalswhichhav eeatenplants.Animals,t
herefore,take
inawi derrangeoff oodthanplants.

Wor
dsdenot
ingsi
mil
ari
ti
esanddi
ff
erences

Simil
ari
ty:si
mil
arly
,inli
kemanner,j
ustas…so,
simil
art
o,t
hesameas,
int
hesameway
,
resembles,(
be)l
ike/al
i
ke/equal
l
y,asmuchas,as…as

Cont
rast:i
ncontr
ast,unli
ke…,notl
i
ke,onthecont
rary
,ontheot
herhand,but
,di
ff
erent
fr
om,dissi
mil
ar,
diff
er(s)f
rom,whil
e,wher
eas,
notsimil
art
o,mor
e/l
essthan.

Qual
if
ying degree adv
erbs f
orcomparison:appr
oxi
mat el
y,consi
derabl
y,pr
acti
cal
ly
,
ent
ir
ely
,totall
y,exactl
y,al
most,near
ly,sli
ght
ly,ali
tt
le,moreorl ess,agreatdeal
,
somewhat,somehow.

NB:therearesituati
onswhenacont r
asti
sindicatedwi thoutanysignali
ngwor d.For
example:
1.Thel i
on,unl
ikethegoat,
eatsmeat(‘
unl
ike’indi
catesdi f
fer
ence).
2.At r
iangl
ehast hreesi
des;arect
angl
ehasf our(di
fferenceisi
mplied/i
n-bui
l
t).

1.
6 CauseandEf f
ect
Cause-ef
fectrel
ati
onshi
preferstothei
deaofl inki
ngt hereason/pur
pose/causeof
event
soract i
onswiththei
rresul
t/
eff
ect
/consequence.Foranyexpr
essionthatshows
causeandef
fect
,ther
eisaconnect
ive/
li
nki
ngex
pressi
onasi
ntheexampl
ebel
ow.

CAUSE CONNECTI VE EFFECT

Heat Causes i
rontoexpand
Pri
cesr
ose. Asar esul
t, fewergoodsweresol
d
Anymar kson t
hel
eav
es dueto thesamev i
rus
ar
eprobabl
y

Now,linkeachoft heexpr essionsnumber ed1t o6withtheonefr

om t
hosenumber
ed
(
a)t o(i
)t hatappr opri
atelyfi
ts.Connect iv
ei neachcasei
sinit
ali
cs.
1. Ther eisaci di nthatbot te.Ther
l efore…
2.Theef f
ectoft hefluctuationi ntemper at
ure
3.Badl abourr el
ationscaused…
4.Theacci dentoccur redbecauseof …
5.Hepassedhi sexami nationsbecause…
6.Del ay edt reatmentof tenr esultsin….
(
a).ther oadwasi cy.
(
b).hewasunsuccessf ul.
(
c).prolongedi llness.
(
d).itmustbehandl edv erycaref ull
y.
(
e).careful storage.
(
f).theicyr oadcondi ti
ons.
(
g).thest rike.
(
h).hewor kedhar d.
(
i)
.wast oki l
lthel aboratoryspeci mens.

Mostoften,t
hetypeandtheposi
ti
onoftheconnect
iveusuall
ydet
ermi
neswhet
hert
he
causeortheeff
ectoccupi
est
heini
ti
alposi
ti
on.Fori
nstance,

1.Ani ncreasei ndemandof tencauses/r

esultsin/l eadsto/culmi
natesin/pr oduces
higherpr i
ces.
2.Higherpr icesresultfrom/emanat efr
om ani ncreasei ndemand.
3.The pr ices ar e higherbecause of /as a r esul tof/on accountof /owing
to/through/ l
argelyduet o/becausethereis/sincet hereis/ast
hereisani ncrease
i
ndemand.
4.Thepr i
cesar ehigherbecauset hedemandhasi ncreased.
5.When/ I
ftherei sanincreaseindemand, (t
hen)pr icesri
se.
6.Because/ As/ Since/Nowt hatthedemandhasi ncr eased,thepr
icesarehigher.

1.
7 Gener
ali
sat
ionandQual
i
ficat
ion
Thisiswheregener alcomment saremadeabouti nformat i
onandatt hesamet i
me,
opi
nion/i
nter
pretat
ion/anal
ysisi sgiv
enaf t
erdescr i
bing thei nf
ormati
oni nit
ial
ly
.To
makegener alcomment saboutcer tai
ninformationof tenr equir
esthatitisqual i
fi
ed
wit
h someamountofpr ecisi
on.Thequal i
ficati
on ent ai
lst hatthewr i
terisgi vi
ng
i
nterpr
etat
ionoropi ni
onpur elybasedont heav ail
ablei nf
ormat i
on.Thefollowingare
somet hecommonl yusedexpr essi
onsforqual
ifi
cation.

QUANTITY:al
l
,every
,each,most,major
it
y(of)
,many,much,al ot(
of),enough,some,
sev
eral
,anumber(of
),aminor
it
y(of)
,afew,f
ew, al
i
ttl
e,l
i
ttl
e,no,
none,noany

FREQUENCY:al
ways,usual
l
y,normal
l
y,general
ly,
regul
arl
y,of
ten,
frequent
ly,
somet
imes,
occasi
onal
l
y,r
arel
y,scar
ce(
ly)
,sel
dom,hardl
y,never

PROBABI LITY:cer tai

nly,defini
tely,undoubtedl
y,pr obabl
e,probabl
y,li
kely,perhaps,
possibl
e,possibly,
may be,unlikel
y
Belowi sframef orat y
picaldescripti
onofaf act
ualinformat
ion
Basedonasur veyof /Ar ecentsur veyof…analy
sed…Outof…,…wer e/
weref oundto
be…This i mplies/suggests/shows/ r
eveal
s t hat al l
/al
most/
most /
majori
ty/sever
al/
a
l
argerpr oporti
on of …Howev er/
Inter
esti
ngly… The …t end(
s)t o/
Therei s a general
tendencythat…gener all
y/mostf r
equently/
always/r
arely

1.8I nterpret
ationofDat a
Ouragei scharacterizedbyi nf or
mat i
onexpl osion.Ther efore,t hepr oblem associ ated
with dat a can be summar i
zed br i
efly as those i nvolving t he sour ce,col l
ecti
on,
processing,st or
ageandr etrieval
.I nformat i
onofwhat everf or m,shapeormodef or
scienti
ficoracademi cusei sdescr ibedasdat a.Inacademi cwr i
ting,dat ainterpret
ation
i
st hewr itt
encommentordi scussi ononsi gnif
icantinformat ionf r
om t ables,diagrams,
charts,etc.evenwher esuchdi agr
ammat i
cinformat i
oni sclear .I
tusual lybegi nswithan
i
ntroduct i
onofgener alcommentwhi chisf oll
owedbyadescr iptivecommentont he
mostsi gnifi
cantinformat i
on.Thei ntroductorysect i
onment ionst het ypeofdi agr am (
eg.
tableorf i
gure)wi t
ht henumberassi gnedt oi tanditsimpor tantf eatures( content)
.The
comment arysectionadequat elydescr ibesordi scussesev er yt
hingwi t
hi nthecont entin
anyoft hef ol
lowingexampl es.

Ascanbeseenf r
om/ i
n…
Accordingt oTableI/FigureI
…
Asisshowni n…
Asindicated…
Largerof … was/ suggests/impli
es…Infact ,… account
ed f
oras much as/great
er
than/l
esst han/ashighas/ aslowas/lowerthan..
.
Whi l
e/Wher eas/Ont hecontrary/
Ontheot herhand…
/Simil
arly
/Mosti mpor tant
ly/
Asmuchas/ Only…
…v eryminimal/sl
ight/gradual/
sharp/
rapi
d/ sudden/
marked/i
ncr
ease/
decr
ease…
1.
9Drawi ngConclusions
Soonaft
erev erydatainterpretati
on,conclusionsaredrawn.Thi sisusual
lyi
ntheli
ghtof
fi
ndi
ngst hatemer gedf rom t hedat ainterpret
ed.Theconcl usi
onsinformthereader
whatisi
nf er
red/suggestedf rom thedat a.Conclusionsstateclearl
ywhatisobtai
nable
orwhatcan/maybepr edicted.
From everyi
nformationi nat ext,t
ableorf i
gure,youmakeananal ysi
s,makecomment s
on si
gni
f i
canti t
emsand di scusst hem.Ther eafter,you draw someconcl usi
on(s)
.
Summary ,i
sinthiscontext,largelydi
ffer
entf rom conclusi
on(s).

EXERCISES
I:Readthefol
lowi
ngdescri
pti
onofapr ocedur
eusedt ocarryoutastudyon‘an
economicanal
ysi
sofnatur
algaspol i
cyalter
nat
ives’andanswert
hequesti
onst
hat
fol
low.

A mat hemat icalmodelwasdev elopedf ort heev aluati

onofal ternativenat uralgas
poli
cies.Themodeli sbaseduponasi mpl i
fiedener gydemandf unct i
onwhi chr elates
thequant ityofener gyconsumedt opr i
ce.Ther elati
onshipwasnotest imat edbya
stati
sticalpr ocedur e.Rat her,paramet er swer especi fiedwhi ch,onthebasi sofpr ev ious
studies,wer et houghtt oappr oximat emar ketbehav i
or.
Energyconsumpt ionwasdef inedt oi ncludenat uralgas,oilandel ectri
cit
yusedi nt he
resi
dent ial,commer cial,andi ndividualsect ors.Fuel susedf ortranspor tat
ionandoi l
usedf ori ndust ri
alf eedstockwer eexcl udedbecausenat uralgasi snotgener all
yused
fort hesepur poses.I tisusedt o pr oduceanhy drousammoni a,butt hiswasal so
excluded.
Thesuppl yandpr i
ceofnat ur algasandt hepr icesofpot entialnaturalgassubst itutes
werespeci fi
edf oreachpol i
cyopt ion.Themodel wast henusedt ocal culatethepr iceof
energy ,t
hequant it
yofener gy ,andt hequant i
tiesofnat uralgassubst it
utest hatwoul d
beconsumed.Fr om t hisinformat ion,pol i
cyal ternativeswer eev al
uat edbycompar i
ng
theconsumerexpendi tureassoci atedwi t
heachpol i
cy.

QUESTI
ONS

1.I
dent
if
yandwr
it
edowni
nyouranswerbookl
et:

(
a)8passi
vev
oicev
erbf
ormst
hatshowpar
ti
cul
ar/
speci
fi
cdescr
ipt
ion

(
b)2passi
vev
oicev
erbf
ormsshowi
nggener
aldescr
ipt
ion

I
I:Changethefol
lowingfr
om nomi naltoformaldefi
nit
ions.
1.Awr i
ti
nginstr
umentwhi chcontai
nsal eadandcanbeer asedbyar
ubberi
scall
eda
penci
l.
2.Aper sonwhost udi
eslivi
ngorganismsi scal
ledabi ol
ogist
.
3.Abookwhi chhassoftcover
sandi srelat
ivel
ycheapi sknownasapaper
back.
4.Thetypeofv i
si
onwhi chall
owsdi st
ancest
obej udgedandshapesper
cei
vedi
n
dept
hisknownasabi nocul
arvi
sion.
5.Asubstancewhichhasthepr
opertyofbei
ngt
ranspar
enti
sglass.

I
II
:Thefol
lowi
ngarestat
ementsaboutanimals(number
ed1t o5)andpl
ant
s(mar
ked
byl
ett
ersatoe).Mat
chthest
atementsthatexpr
esscont
rast
.

ANI
MALS
1.Animalcell
sareencl
osedinamembrane. 2.Ani
malsobtai
nfoodf
rom pl
ant
sand
otheranimal
s.
3.Animalscanmov e.4.Ani
malsar
esensi
ti
vetothei
renv
ironment
.
5 Al lpar
tsofanani
malgrow.

PLANTS
a.Pl antsmanuf act
uret hei
rown food. b.Plant
sdo nothavet
he powerof
l
ocomot ion.
c.Plantsonlygrow i
nt heirext
remi
ti
es. d.Pl ant
sdonotappeart
obesensi
ti
veto
thei
renv i
ronment.
e.Pl antcell
sareenclosedinanon-
li
vingwal
l
.

II
I:The foll
owing ar
e st
atements abouthuman (numbered 1 t
o 5)and insect
communi t
ies (
marked by l
ett
ersat o e)
.Match the st
atement
s whi
ch express
si
milar
it
ies.

HUMANSOCI ETI
ES
1.Ci
ti
esar
ecompl ex
.2.Count r
iesmai
ntai
nar
mies.3.Indi
vi
dual
swor
ktoget
her
.
4.Humanhousesarefunct
ional
.5.Ther
eisdi
vi
sionofl
abour.
I
NSECTSOCIETIES

a.Gr
oupshav
especi
ali
zedf
unct
ions. b.I
ndi
vi
dual
scoor
dinat
ethei
ref
for
ts.

c.Ther
ear
esol
dier
stodef
endt
hecol
oni
es.

d.I
nsect
s’nest
sar
enotsi
mpl
e. e.Nest
sar
ebui
l
ttoper
for
m speci
fi
cfunct
ions

IV.Eachoft hesentencesbel
ow showsacauseandef f
ectrel
ati
onship.Copythe
sentencesandindi
cat
eeachofthet
woclausesi
nev
erysent
enceasexpressi
ngeit
hera
causeoraneffect.

1.Hewasdemot
edbecausehi
sper
for
mancewast
ool
ow.

2.Drug addict
s can become ver
y moody and somet
imes v
iol
ent
.As a
consequence,f
ami
li
essometi
mesbreakof
f.

3.Si
ncement
akeont
hemai
nresponsi
bil
i
tyofkeepi
ngt
hef
ami
l
y,t
heydev
elop
 st
ress-
rel
atedi
l
lnessanddi
eyounger
.

4.Manyabl
e-bodiedmenarekil
l
edi nviol
encepronecommuni
ti
es.Asar
esul
t,
wi
dowsandor phansar
elef
twithoutabreadwi
nner.

V.Complet
eeachofthesesent
ences,makinguseofanyoneofthefol
lowing:suchas,
as…as,
whil
e,nev
ert
heless,
acaseinpoi
nt,anexampl
e,al
though,
however,because.

1.att
heappr
oachofdanger
,manybi
rdsut
terwar
ningcal
l
s.Thi
sis…ofani
mal
s.

2.…t
hei
mpor
tedj
uicesar
eexpensi
ve,
thel
ocal
l
ypr
oducedonesar
echeap.

4.t
her
ear
eanumberofl
anguages…I
tal
i
anandRomani
awhi
chdescendedf
rom Lat
in.

5.Thenumberofsi
gnal
sthatanani
mal
canmakei
sver
yli
mit
ed,
theGr
eati
s…

6.al
kal
i
neandbasewer
emi
xedi
nthebasi
n,ar
emar
kabl
ereact
ionwasobser
ved.

7.…hei
sanov
ice,
hiswr
it
tenEngl
i
shper
for
mancewasi
mpr
essi
ve.

Suggest
edReadi
ngs
Al
ther
ton,B.(
2000)
.‘Devel
opingaccuracyi
nacademi
cwri
ti
ng’
.I
nA.J.Gill
et,
&L.Wray(
Eds)
,
Assessi
ngtheeffect
ivenessofEAPprogr
ammes(pp12-
23)London:BALEAP

Bar
ras,
R.( 1978)
.Sci
ent
ist
smustwri
te–Agui
det
obet
terwr
it
ingf
orsci
ent
ist
s,engi
neer
sand
students.NewYor
k:Wil
l
eyandSonsI
nc.

Br
own,
F.A.(
2003)
.Engl
i
shf
ort
ert
iar
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