MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Geol-3011

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL

ENGINEERING

SEMESTER II

Sample Questions and Solutions

B.Tech (First Year)

CIVIL ENGINEERING

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1. Discuss what you know about the Groundwater movements.

Answer:

Groundwater
When water percolates into the soil, it centers the voids and starts to fill them
up. As a result, pore water pressure starts to rise. Pore water pressure is the pressure
acting on soil grains by water held in the pores. Pore water pressure can b e positive
or negative. It is negative when voids are only partially filled with water. (This state is
also known as soil suction. Pore water pressure becomes positive at the point when all
the air has been expelled from the voids and the water phase in the soil-water mix
becomes continuous. At that point, the water phase becomes a column and hydrostatic
pressure, equivalent to the height of the column, is exerted within the pores. The
pressure is transferred to the soil grains.
If the hydrostatic pressure is sufficiently high it will force the grains apart and
the mixture will start to behave as a liquid. Hydrostatic pressure developed near the
soil surface.
When pore water pressure becomes positive along the walls of a fissure
underground, a pipe develops. A pipe is an enlarged fissure that forms underground in
fine-grained, non-cohesive soil, especially silty or fine sandy soils. Enlargements of
the fissure take place when water flowing along the fissure detaches particles of soil
and carries them away in suspension. The trench may be above the head of a gully
and in the same alignment as the gully, indicating that water is moving into the gully
head as groundwater through a pipe.
If water travels downwards to the bottom of the soil profile, it commonly
becomes halted in its path by the impermeable surface of the rock. Pore water
pressure may become positive at the base of the soil profile, resulting in a deep
transitional landslide (the commonest deep type) or circular failure.

2. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, write short notes on the followings:-
(i) Vadose water (ii) Aquifer (iii) Unconfined aquifer
(iv) Confined aquifer (v) Artesian aquifer (vi) Fresh and salt groundwater

Answer:

(i) Vadose water

This type of water occurs from surface downwards up to a variable depth and
is in a state of downward movement under the influence of gravity. It movements is
commonly described as INFILTRATION. The thickness of soil and rock through
which the Vadose water infiltration is called zone of aeration. Obviously, in the zone
of aeration the soil and rocks remain unsaturated with water.
Vadose zone: This zone can be distinguished into three different types of
environments; soil water, intermediate vadose water and capillary water.

(ii) Aquifer
An aquifer is a rock mass, layer or formation, which is saturated with
groundwater and which by virtue of its properties, is capable of yielding the stored
water at economical costs when tapped.

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 Gravels, limestone, and sandstones generally form good aquifer when
occurring in suitable geological conditions and geographic situations.

(iii) Unconfined aquifer

It is also called water table aquifer, and is the most common type encountered
in the field. In this type, the upper surface of water or the water-table is under
atmospheric pressure which may be acting through the interstices in the overlying
rocks. Water occurring in this type of aquifer is called Free Groundwater. When
tapped through a test well, the free water will rise to a level equivalent to the water
table of the area.

(iv) Confined aquifer

It is a rock formation saturated with water and capable of yielding water when
tapped but unlike unconfined aquifer, has an overlying confining layer (an
impermeable rock mass) that separates it from the influence of atmospheric pressure.
Naturally, water held in this type of aquifer is not under atmospheric pressure but
under great pressure due to the confining medium. The upper surface of water in a
confined aquifer is called piezometric surface. For establishing a piezometric surface,
level of water in number of test wells has to be made.

(v) Artesian aquifer

It is, in fact, confined aquifer of such geometry and developed in suitable
geological situations so that the piezometric surface is above the ground level at many
places when projected in elevation. When water is tapped from such aconfined
aquifer, it rushes up to and even above the surface and may rise to the heights
theoretically equivalent to the projected piezometric surface. Such wells are called
Artesian Wells or flowing wells and the type of groundwater obtained from them,
which often needs no pumping, as Artesian Wells.

(vi) Fresh and salt groundwater

The neighbourhood of ocean or sea, salt water encroaches on fresh water, and
contaminates it and vice versa. Fresh water may over ride and displaces salt water.

3. Write a short account on Zonal Distribution of Groundwater.

Subsurface water may be found to exist in two main zones or environments as
described above vadose water and groundwater.

Answer:

The Vadose zone:

This zone can be distinguished into three different types of environments; soil
water, intermediate vadose water and capillary water.
The soil water forms a thin zone confined to the near surface depth of the land.
It is held up by root zone of vegetable cover and soil chemicals. It is lost to the
atmosphere by transpiration and evaporation.
The intermediate Vadose zone occurs immediately below the zone of soil
water, it is , in fact, a zone of non-saturation; water in this zone is miving downwards
under the influence of gravity. It is generally small thickness and may be absent in

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many cases. The above two zones are sometimes collectively referred as zone of
aeration.

The zone of capillary water, called capillary fringes is present only in soils and
rocks of fine particle size underlying the Vadose zone. It is absent in the coarse
sediments. In this zone groundwater is drawn upwards by capillary action, Growth of
vegetation observed in some deserts is very often dependent on the presence of the
capillary fringe. The cause of rise of water in the capillaries of fine sediments is the
well-known force of surface tension.

The Phreatic Water Zone:

This zone is called the zone of saturation lies below the capillary fringe, and it
is the water held in this zone that is called groundwater in the real sense. The upper
surface of water in this zone marks the water table in the area. All the openings are
thoroughly interconnected so that a well dug into this zone receives water from the
entire saturated rock mass, called the aquifer. The predominant movement is a type of
lateral flow controlled by the head of the water.
In many cases a significant rise and fall in the level of this zone is observed as
a characteristic feature during the different parts of the year depending upon rainfall
and recharge.

4. Discuss the following geological problems that are usually met with at dam sites.
(i) Dams on shale (ii) Dams on soluble rocks
(iii) Dams built across strike of rocks (iv) Dams on jointed and permeable rocks

Answer:

(i) Dams on shale

Shales are of two types: (i) cementation shale and (ii) compaction shales. The
cementation shales are stronger and do not disintegrate when subjected to wetting and
drying. The compaction shales on the other hand are soft and they slake when
subjected to alternate wetting and drying. Their bearing strength is low and they
become plastic when wetted. The compaction shales have a tendency to flow away
from the loaded area and therefore the structure settles. Swelling and caving may
result during the excavation work, which may cause trouble. If dams have to be built
on compaction shales, heavier structures like gravity dams should be avoided. After

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excavating the weathered rock either concrete should be placed immediately without
delay or its surface should be coated with asphalts to avoid swelling and caving.

(ii) Dams on soluble rocks

The soluble rocks include limestone and dolomites and marbles. These rocks
are generally sufficiently strong to support the weight of the dam, they may contain
under ground solution channels and caverns. If such solution channels are present at a
dam site, the leakage through them may be on such a large scale that the reservoir
may not hold water for long. The treatment of such openings is very expensive
therefore; they should be carefully looked for in the soluble rocks before constructing
a dam.

(iii) Dams built across strike of rocks

The best foundation condition is when only one uniform rock as present along
the length of a dam. If a dam is aligned across the strike of strata, its foundation will
be on different rock types of varying properties in such a case there are changes of
unequal settlement of the dam. Further as the bedding planes of the strata lie across
the axis of the dam, there is a possibility of serious leakage of water.

(iv) Dams on jointed and permeable rocks

Where highly fissured, jointed and permeable rocks exist below the dam, they
will not only leakage of water, but also build uplift pressure at the base of the dam.
The uplift pressure acts opposite to the weight of the structure and it may cause
sliding.

5. (a) Write a short account on Forces acting on dams.

(b) Explain about the geological problem of Cams on Faults.

Answer:

(a) Forces acting on dams

Water Pressure
T is the pressure of the reservoir water which tends to displace the dam
horizontally. W is the weight of the dam which acts downwards and tends to key the
dam in position and R is the resultant of forces T and W which indicates that when the
reservoir is full, the toe of the dam is overloaded and the hell is relieved. Therefore in
order to make the dam stable, the ratio T/W has to be kept smaller.

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Pore Pressure
The water entering in permeable rocks below the dam exerts an upward
pressure on the base of tit. This pressure, which is equivalent to the hydrostatic
pressure, is called the pore pressure or uplift pressure. To acts against the weight of
the dam and thus helps in sliding or overturning it.

(b) Dams on Faults

Faults are most troublesome if they are encountered across the length of the
dam. It is better to avoid fault zones for the construction of the dam. The fault zones
cause the following troubles;
(a) It is difficult to seal the fault zones and prevent leakage of water from the
reservoir at reasonable cost.
(b) The rocks may weather up to a great depth along a fault zone. This
requires digging and scraping of the weathered rocks to a great depth and
refilling the trench with concrete.
(c) The crushed and fissured rocks that exit along a fault zone in the
foundation have to be grouted intensively to increase their bearing
strength.
(d) Along a fault, some displacement of strata is always expected, particularly
during an earthquake. Such a moment will not only reopen the fault fissure
but also rupture the dam.
(e) A site where the fault is known to have been active in recent years should
always be discarded.

6. Describe the following geological structures that influence the tunnel design,
stability and cost.
(i) Tunnels in Horizontal Strata
(ii) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip direction
(iii) Tunnel axis driven parallel to the strike
(iv) Tunnel in folded rocks

Answer:

(i) Tunnels in Horizontal Strata

Such a situations is rare in occurrence for long tunnels. When encountered for
small tunnels or for short lengths of long tunnels, horizontally layered rocks might be
considered quite favorable. In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are very
thick, and the tunnel diameter not very large, the situation is especially favourable
because the layers would over bridge flat excavations by acting as natural beams.
However, when the layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be depended upon as
beams; in such case, either the roof has to be modified to an arch type or has to be
protected by giving a lining.

(ii) Tunnel axis parallel to the dip direction

When the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction (which means it is at right
angles to the strike direction). The layers offer uniformly distributed load on the
excavation. The arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural arch transferring
the load on to sides comes into maximum condition. Even relatively weaker rocks
might act s self-supporting in such cases. It is a favourable condition from this aspect.

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However it also implies that the axis of tunnel has to pass through a number of rocks
of the inclined sequence while going through parallel to dip.

(iii) Tunnel axis driven parallel to the strike

When the tunnel is driven parallel to strike of the beds the pressure distributed
to the exposed layers is asymmetrical along the periphery of the tunnel opening; one
half would be bedding planes opening into the tunnel and hence after potential planes
and conditions for sliding into opening. The bridge action is weakened due to
discontinuities at the bedding planes running along the arch.

(iv) Tunnel in folded rocks

Folded rocks show bends and curvatures and store al lot of stain energy in the
rocks. Their influence on design and construction of tunnel is important at the three
position of angles;
(i) Considerable variation and uncertainly folded rocks
(ii) Folded Rocks with peculiar rock pressure
(iii) Aquifers in folded rocks

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7. Write short notes on the followeing geological investigation which are very
important in the design, stability and economical construction and maintenance of
roads:-
(i) Topography (ii) Lithological character (iii) Groundwater conditions

Answer:

(i) Topography
Topography or the landform of a region is single most important factor that
controls the selection the alignment of a road project. Topographic maps would reveal
the existence of various land features like valleys and inflowing streams, the hills and
their undulations, the plateaus and the plains with their entire configuration from
place to place. Obviously, knowledge of all such features is not only important but
very essential for a right alignment. Moreover such knowledge would also be
necessary to decide where cuttings would be required and in which areas it would be
filling where necessary or where the slopes could be left at their natural inclination
and where these would have to be flattened protected by retaining walls and so on.

(ii) Lithological character

The massive group of rocks includes all varieties of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks which can stand even with vertical slopes. For making roads
through them, however, these rocks require extensive blasting operations. They
cannot be simply cut out or dug out. Once cut, especially if they are free from joints
and fractures and unfavourably inclined bedding planes, these rocks stand erect for
years without much maintenance.

(iii) Groundwater conditions

It is always necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water table of
the area. Not only that, water bearing qualities should also be known along the
proposed route. It is quite likely that water bearing zones (aquifer) might be
intersecting the base or slopes of an alignment. Specific care and design would be
required for these natural water conduits. These are always to be taken as weak and
hazardous zones in the road.
Ground water conditions are very important as they influence on the bearing
capacity of the rocks and soil. Hence when the ground is rich with moisture it would
not bear the design loads. Sometimes free flow of ground-water through the soil is
quite dangerous for the stability of the road surface.

8. Discuss briefly on Geological Structures that influence the construction of road.

The structural fractures of rocks include dip and strike, joints, fault planes and
shear zones.
Dip and Strike: There may be three possibilities for making a cut in the inclined
beds: it can be made parallel, at right angles or inclined to the dip directions.
(i) Cut is parallel to the dip direction: In such a case Figure A, the layers offer
a uniform behavior on either side of the cut and as such the risk of failure
is minimal on this account.

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 Figure (A) Road cuts parallel to the dip

(ii) Cut is made parallel to the strike, that is, at right angles to the dip
direction. In such a case, strata plunge across the cut, offering different
inclinations of the layers on either side of the cut. On the dipping in side of
the cut, there is always likelihood of slips, especially when the planes are
inclined steeply and get lubricated very often due to rainwater, or
groundwater movement Figure B. In some case where the layers dip into
the hill rater than in the roads, the cut is considered quite stable Figure C.

Figure (B) parallel to strike of inclined layers

(iii) Cutting inclined to Dip and Strike: in such cases also the strata will dip
across the cutting and the slops of cutting will be unequal on both sides.
Hence such a condition would give rise to similar difficulties as
encountered in cuts parallel to strike.

Figure (C) Road cut parallel to strike beds dip into the hill

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Joints: These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the bedding
planes. When present in great abundance, joints reduce event the hardest rock as a
mass of loosely held up blocks on the side of a cut which could tumble down on slight
vibrations. Further, even if the joints are few, but are continuous and inclined towards
the free side of the cut, these offer potential surfaces for slips during the presence of
moisture.
Faults: Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault planes and
shear zones. Such a condition is, of course, very unfavourable for a cut when it
happens to form upper or lower slope or even base of the cut. It should not be left
untreated in any case. These are the worst type of planes of potential failure.

9. Write short notes on any tow of the followings geological characters that need to be
investigated:-
(i) The depth to the bed rock (ii) The nature of the bed rock
(iii) The structural disposition of rocks

(i) The depth to the bed rock

In alluvial channels the thickness of loose sands and gravels may be so great
that it is not economical to reach the bed rocks for placing the piers. In such case pile
foundation is used. Friction piles are used where the bed rock is not available up to a
great depth.
Firstly, piers placed directly on them would be unstable:
Secondly, the cover material is liable to be removed due to scouring by river water.
The pier must be placed on a stable foundation, preferably of rock, under a
suitable thickness of cover material so that it is sage from scour by river water.
The height of pier from under the span to the foundation depends on the depth
of the bed rock below the river water.
Sound bed rocks depend on the local geology drill holes are made all along the
center line of the proposed bridge, even on the right or left of it, till they reach the
sound rock sequence or up to a reasonable depth. Utmost care is needed not to
mistake isolated big boulders buried underneath the river bed as the bed rock.
Boulders are rocks but they are not bed rocks and cannot be rusted as foundations for
bridge piers.

Figure. Depth of bed rock

(ii) The nature of the bed rock

The very first rock encountered below the bed cover material may not be
suitable as a foundation. It should be kept in mind that three types of loads are to be
borne by a bridge pier foundation:

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- The compressive, vertical loads due to the weight of the bridge span and that of pier
material;
- The horizontal loads due to the thrust of the water flowing above as transmitted
directly and through the pier;
- the dynamic, complex load, often inclined and shearing in character, due to heavy
traffic on the bridge.
The bedrock selected as foundation for the pier must be strong enough to bear
the sum total of all these loads.
The nature of the bed rock is commonly determined through study of
petrological characters and engineering properties, especially the strength values,
using the core samples obtained during drilling of test bore holes.
Most igneous and massive type of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks is quite
strong, stale and durable as foundations for bridge piers and abutments. The group of
weak rocks includes such types as cavernous limestones, chalk, friable sandstones
especially with clayey cements, shales, clays, slates, schists and the layers of peat and
compressible organic material.

Figure. Nature of rocks below piers

10. Discuss the following geological problems that are usually met with at dam sites.
(i) Dams on shale (ii) Dams on soluble rocks
(iii) Dams on strata dipping upstream (iv) Dams on strata dipping down stream

Answer:

(i) Dams on shale

Shales are of two types: (i) cementation shale and (ii) compaction shales. The
cementation shales are stronger and do not disintegrate when subjected to wetting and
drying. The compaction shales on the other hand are soft and they slake when
subjected to alternate wetting and drying. Their bearing strength is low and they
become plastic when wetted. The compaction shales have a tendency to flow away
from the loaded area and therefore the structure settles. Swelling and caving may
result during the excavation work, which may cause trouble. If dams have to be built
on compaction shales, heavier structures like gravity dams should be avoided. After
excavating the weathered rock either concrete should be placed immediately without
delay or its surface should be coated with asphalts to avoid swelling and caving.

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(ii) Dams on soluble rocks
The soluble rocks include limestone and dolomites and marbles. These rocks
are generally sufficiently strong to support the weight of the dam, they may contain
under ground solution channels and caverns. If such solution channels are present at a
dam site, the leakage through them may be on such a large scale that the reservoir
may not hold water for long. The treatment of such openings is very expensive
therefore; they should be carefully looked for in the soluble rocks before constructing
a dam.

(iii) Dams on strata dipping upstream

The dams located on rocks dipping upstream represent ideal foundation
conditions. They are the most capable of supporting the weight of dams and the
pressure of the reservoir because the resultant of these two forces acts nearly at
right angles to the bedding planes of rocks. Further the upstream dip of rocks does
not allow the water in the reservoir to percolate below the dam. As a result the
leakage of water and the development of uplift pressure will be minimum.

Figure . Dam on rocks dipping upstream

(iv) Dams on strata dipping down stream

The dams constructed on rocks dipping down stream may not be safe due to
the following reasons.

(a) The percolation of water may lubricate the junctions of rock bed; which may
facilitate sliding of dam.
(b) The water percolating through the strata dissolves the cementing materials of
rocks and enlarges the openings by mechanical erosion. This undermines the
strength of the rocks and increases the seepage of water.
(c) The water, which enters into the openings of rocks below the dam causes the
development of uplift pressure, which tends to decreased the stability to the
structure.

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 Figure . Dam on rocks dipping downstream

11. Write short notes on the following physical properties of rock material and their
relationship with each other. Give an example of the best quality of these
properties.
(a) Density (b) Porosity (c) Water Content
(d) Hardness (e) Permeability

Answer:

(a) Density: Density is a measure of mass per unit of volume. Density of rock
material various related to the porosity of the rock. It is sometimes defined by unit
weight and specific gravity. Most rocks have density between 2,300 and 2,800 kg/m3.
Density is common physical properties; it is influenced by the specific gravity
of the composition minerals and the compaction of the minerals. However, most rocks
are well compacted and then have specific gravity between 2.5 to 2.8. Density is used
to estimate overburden stress.

(b) Porosity: Porosity describes how densely the material is packed. It is the
ratio of the non-solid volume to the total volume of material. Porosity therefore is a
fraction between 0 and 1. The value is typically ranging from less than 0.01 for solid
granite to up to 0.5 for porous sandstone. It may also be represented in percent terms
by multiplying the fraction by 100%.
Porosity is one of the governing factors for the permeability. Porosity provides
the void for water to flow through in a rock material. High porosity therefore naturally
leads to high permeability.
Density and porosity often related to the strength of rock material. A low
density and high porosity rock usually has low strength.

(c) Water Content: Water content is a measure indicating the amount of water
the rock material contains. It is simply the ratio of the volume of water to the bulk
volume of the rock material.

(d) Hardness: Hardness is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its

resistance to permanent deformation. Hardness of a rock material depends on several
factors, including mineral composition and density. A typical measure is the Schmidt
rebound hardness number.

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 (e) Permeability: Permeability is a measure of the ability of a material to
transmit fluids. Most rocks, including igneous, metamorphic and chemical
sedimentary rocks, generally have very low permeability. As discussed earlier,
permeability of rock material is governed by porosity. Porous rocks such as
sandstones usually have high permeability while granites have low permeability.
Permeability of rock materials, except for those porous one, has limited interests as in
the rock mass, flow is concentrated in fractures in the rock mass.

(i) The best quality rock type of density is Diorite.

(ii) The best quality rock type of porosity is also Diorite.
(iii) The best quality rock type of hardness (Schimidt hardness index) is Granite.
(iv) The best quality rock type of permeability is Quartzite.

12. Write a short account on the following mechanical properties of rock material.
(a) Compressive Strength (b) Triaxial compressive strength
(c) Young Modulus and Poission’s ratio
Answer:

(a) Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed
compressive forces. The most common measure of compressive strength is the uni-
axial compressive strength or unconfined compressive strength (UCS). Usually
compressive strength of rock is defined by the ultimate stress. It is one of the most
important mechanical properties of rock material, used in design, analysis and
modeling.
Figure (A) presents a typical stress-stain curve of a rock under uniaxial
compression. The complete stress-strain curve can be divided into 6 sections,
represent 6 stages that the rock material is undergoing. Figure (A) shows the states of
rock in those stages of compression.

(b) Triaxial compressive strength

In underground excavation, we often are interested in the rock at depth. The
rock is covered by overburden materials, and is subjected to lateral stresses.
Compressive strength with lateral pressure is higher than that without. The
compressive strength with lateral pressures is called triaxial compressive strength.
The true triaxial compression means the 3 different principal stresses in three
directions. A true triaxial compression testing machine is rather difficult ot operate. In
most tests, two lateral stresses are made equal, i.e., σ 2 = σ3 in the test, only a
confining pressure is required.

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 Figure (B) shows the results of a series triaxial compression tests. In addition
to the significant increase of strength with confining pressure, the stress-strain
characteristics also changed.

(c) Young Modulus and Poission’s ratio

Young’s Modulus is modulus of elasticity measuring of the stiffness of a rock
material. It is defined as the ratio, for small strains, of the rate of change of stress with
strain. This can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain curve
obtained during compressional or tensile tests conducted on a rock sample.
Similar to strength, Young’s Modulus of rock materials varies widely with
rock type. For extremely hard and strong tocks, Young’s Modulus can be as high as
100GPa. There is some correlation between compressive strength and Young’s
Modulus.
Poission’s ratio measures the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain, at linearly
elastic region. For most rocks, the Poission’s ratio is between 0.15 and 0.4. As seen
from early section, at later stage of loading beyond linearly elastic region, lateral
strain increase faster than the axial strain and hence lead to a higher ratio.

13. Write a short account on the following mechanical properties of rock material.
(a) Compressive Strength (b) Triaxial compressive strength
(c) Shear Strength

Answer:

(a) Compressive Strength

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed
compressive forces. The most common measure of compressive strength is the uni-
axial compressive strength or unconfined compressive strength (UCS). Usually
compressive strength of rock is defined by the ultimate stress. It is one of the most
important mechanical properties of rock material, used in design, analysis and
modeling.
Figure (A) presents a typical stress-stain curve of a rock under uniaxial
compression. The complete stress-strain curve can be divided into 6 sections,
represent 6 stages that the rock material is undergoing. Figure (A) shows the states of
rock in those stages of compression.

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 Figure (A) Typical Uniaxial Compression Stress-strain Curve of Rock Material
(b) Triaxial compressive strength
In underground excavation, we often are interested in the rock at depth. The
rock is covered by overburden materials, and is subjected to lateral stresses.
Compressive strength with lateral pressure is higher than that without. The
compressive strength with lateral pressures is called triaxial compressive strength.
The true triaxial compression means the 3 different principal stresses in three
directions. A true triaxial compression testing machine is rather difficult ot operate. In
most tests, two lateral stresses are made equal, i.e., σ 2 = σ3 in the test, only a
confining pressure is required.
Figure (B) shows the results of a series triaxial compression tests. In addition
to the significant increase of strength with confining pressure, the stress-strain
characteristics also changed.

Figure (B) Triaxial Compression Test and Failure

(c) Shear Strength

Shear strength is used to describe the strength of rock materials, to resist
deformation due to shear stress. Rock resists shear stress by two internal mechanisms,
cohesion and internal friction. Cohesion is a measure of internal bonding of the rock
material. Internal friction is caused by contact between particles, and is defined by the
internal friction angle, ф. Different rocks have different cohesions and different
friction angles.

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 Figure (C) Determination of Shear Strength by Triaxial Tests.
Shear strength of rock material can be determined by direct shear test and by
triaxial compression tests. In practice, the later methods is widely used and accepted.

With a series of triaxial tests conducted at different confining pressures, peak stresses
(σ1) are obtained at various lateral stresses (σ3). By plotting Mohr circles, the shear
envelope is defined which gives the cohesion and internal friction angle, as shown in
Figure(C).

14. Discuss briefly on Mohr-Coulomb Criterion of rock material.

1 + sin φ
σ1 = σ c + σ 3
1 − sin φ
Answer:
Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion assumes that a shear failure plane is
developed in the rock material. When failure occurs, the stresses developed on the
failure plane are on the strength envelope. Refer to figure (a), the stresses on the
failure plane a-b are the normal stress σn shear stress τ.

Figure (a) Stresses on failure lane a-b and representation of Mohr’s circle

Applying the stress transformation equations or from the Mohr’s circle, it gives:

1
σn = (σ1 + σ 3 ) + 1 (σ1 − σ 3 ) cos 2θ
2 2

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 1
τ= (σ1 − σ3 )sin 2θ
2

Coulomb suggested that shear strengths of rock are made up of two parts, a
constant cohesion (c) and a normal stress-dependent frictional component, i.e.,

τ = c + σ n tan φ

Where c = cohesion and φ = angle of internal friction. Therefore, by

combining the above three equations,

1
(σ1 − σ3 ) sin 2θ = c + ⎡⎢ 1 (σ1 + σ3 ) + 1 (σ1 − σ3 ) cos 2θ⎤⎥ tan φ
2 ⎣2 2 ⎦

Or

2c + σ 3 [sin 2θ + tan φ(1 − cos 2θ)]

σ1 =
sin 2θ − tan φ(1 + cos 2θ)

In a shear stress-normal stress plot, the coulomb shear strength criterion

τ = c + σ n tan φ is represented by a straight line, with an intercept c on the τ axis and
an angle of Ф with the σn axis. This straight line is often called the strength envelope.
Any stress condition below the strength envelope is safe, and once the stress condition
meet the envelop, failure will occur.
As assumed, rock failure starts with the formation of the shear failure plane a-
b. Therefore, the stress condition on the a-b plane satisfies the shear strength
condition. In another word, the Mohr-Coulomb strength envelops straight line touches
(makes a tangent) to the Mohr’s circles. At each tangent point, the stress condition on
the a-b plane meets the strength envelope.
As see from the Mohr’s circle, the failure plane is defined by θ, and

θ = 14 π + 12 φ

Then

2c ⋅ cos φ + σ 3 (1 + sin φ)
σ1 =
1 − sin φ

If the Mohr-Coulomb strength envelop is extrapolated, the uniaxial

compressive strength is related to c and Ф by:

2c ⋅ cos φ
σc =
1 − sin φ

σ1 = σ c + σ 3
(1 + sin φ)
1 − sin φ

18
15. (a) Define the rock material, rock mass and rock fracture, and their influence on
the choice of excavation method and construction design.
(b) Describe secondary structures associated with faulting.

Answer:
(a) Rock material is the term used to describe the intact rock between discontinuities;
it might be represented by a hand specimen or piece of drill core examined in the
laboratory.
The rock mass is the total in situ medium containing bedding planes, faults,
joints, folds and other structural features. Rock masses are discontinuous and often
have heterogeneous and anisotropic engineering properties.
The nature and distribution of structural features within the rock mass is
known as the rock structures or rock fractures. Obviously, rock fractures can have a
dominant effect on the response of a rock mass to any operations, especially in mining
works. It can influence the choice of an excavation method and the design of
construction layouts because it can control stable excavation spans, support
requirements, subsidence, and capability and fragmentation characteristics. At
shallow depths and in de-stressed areas, structurally controlled failures may be the
prime concern in excavation design. At depth and in areas of high stress
concentration, the influence of structures may be less marked, and limiting the
induced boundary stresses or energy release rates may be more important
considerations.

(b) Faults are fractures on which identifiable shear displacement has taken place.
They may be recongnised by the relative displacement of the rock on opposite sides of
the fault plane. The sense of this displacement is often used to classify faults, (normal,
revere, thrust, etc.)
The ground adjacent to the fault may be disturbed and weakened by associated
structures such as drag folds or secondary faulting (figure A). These factors result in
fault bearing zones of low shear strength on which slip may readily occur.

Figure (A) Secondary Structures Associated with Faulting:

(a) Bedding plane fault in brittle rock develops associated shear and tension gash
fractures:

19
 (b) Bedding plane fault in closely bedded shale developed closely spaced
interesting shears:
(c) Bedding plane fault in poorly stratified, partially ductile rock produces a wide
zone of drag folds:
(d) Fault in competent, brittle rock dies out in weak shale:
(e) Fault in crystalline igneous rock develops subsidiary inclined shears and
parallel sheeting:
(f) A fault in an igneous rock changes character in passing through a mica rich
metamorphic rock.

16. (a) With the help of necessary equations, describe the procedure for testing of
density and porosity.
(b) In a series of porosity tests of granite specimens, the following test results are
recorded as shown in the following table, Determine (i) the mean value of
porosity for granite specimens, (ii) standard deviation and (iii) the coefficient
of variation of the results.
Table: Results of Porosity Test
Sample Diameter, Length, Mdry, Msat,
No. cm cm gm gm
1 6.07 7.44 543.0 547.0
2 6.07 7.25 532.0 535.0
3 6.07 9.14 675.0 680.0
4 6.07 6.43 472.0 475.0
5 4.75 7.22 330.0 333.0
Mdry = weight of oven-dried specimens; Msat = weight of saturated specimens

Answer:
(a)
(i) Density of Sample of Irregular Shape
The mass of the samples is weighed (Mbulk), the rock samples are saturated by
water immersion in a vacuum of 600 Pa for more than 1 hour, with periodic agitation
to remove trapped air. The samples are then transferred underwater to a basket in an
immersion bath. Their saturated-submerged mass Msub is determined from the
difference between the saturate-submerged mass of the basket plus sample and that of
the basket alone. The samples are then taken out from the immersion bath and surface
dried with a moist cloth, their saturated-surface-dry mass Msat is recorded. The bulk
volume (Vbulk) and bulk density (ρbulk) are calculated as:

Vbulk =
(M sat − M sub ) ρ bulk =
M bulk
ρw Vbulk

(ii) Porosity of Rock Samples

Mbulk, Msat, Msub and Vbulk are determined using the same method as that for
density measurement of rock samples with irregular shape. The samples are dried to a
constant mass at a temperature of 105º C in an oven and cooled for 30 min in a
desiccators, and the dry mass Mdry is measured. Pore volume (Vv) and porosity (n) are
calculated by

20
 Vv =
(Msat − M dry ) n=
Vv
× 100%
ρw Vbulk

(b) (i) Porosity

Pore volume Vv =
(Msat − M dry )
ρw
Vv
Porosity n=
Vbulk
For specimen No.1
Vv =
(547.0 − 543.0)
=4
1
Vbulk = πr 2 h = 215.2981
4
∴n = × 100 = 1.85788 %
215.2981
Similarly, for specimen No.2,3,4 and 5 can be calculated by using above equations:
Sample No. Porosity
1 1.85788
2 1.42993
3 1.89040
4 1.61229
5 2.34481

The mean value of porosity = 1.827064

(ii) Standard deviation

n
∑ (x i − x )2
i =1
S2 =
n −1
(1.85788 − 1.82706)2 + (1.42993 − 1.82706)2 + (1.89041 − 1.82706)2
S2 =
5 −1

+
(1.61229 − 1.82706 ) + (2.34481 − 1.82706 )2
2

5 −1
0.5268764
=
4
= 0.1193616
S = 0.3455%
0.34455
(iii) Coefficient of variation of the results =
1.827064
= 0.18909

21
17. (a) Describe the procedure for testing of porosity of rock samples and water
content of rock samples.
(b) In a series of porosity tests of granite specimens, the following test results are
recorded as shown in the following table. Determine the mean value of
apparent density and water content.
Sample Diameter, Length, Mdry Mbulk
Rock Type
No. cm cm gm gm
1 4.73 5.810 261.40 263.20 Granite
2 4.73 7.615 346.20 348.10 Granite
3 4.73 7.615 343.20 344.60 Granite
4 4.50 5.380 218.90 220.20 Granite
5 4.50 4.81 196.40 197.40 Granite
Answers:

(a) (i) Porosity of Rock Samples

Mbulk, Msat, Msub and Vbulk are determined using the same method as that for
density measurement of rock samples with irregular shape. The samples are dried to a
constant mass at a temperature of 105º C in an oven and cooled for 30 min in a
desiccators, and the dry mass Mdry is measured. Pore volume (Vv) and porosity (n) are
calculated by

Vv =
(Msat − M dry ) n=
Vv
× 100%
ρw Vbulk
(ii) Water Content of Rock Samples

Mbulk and Mdry are determined using the same method as that for density and
porosity measurement of rock samples with irregular shape. Water content (w) is
calculate by
w=
(
M bulk − Mdry )
× 100%
Mdry
Reporting of results includes description of the rocks, precautions taken to
retain water during sampling and storage.

(b) (i) Apparent density,

Vbulk =
(M sat − M sub )
ρw
M bulk
ρ bulk =
Vbulk
Msat = saturated-surface-dry mass
Msub = saturated-submerged mass

22
 Sample No. Vbulk ρbulk
1 102.0912 2.5780870
2 133.8080 2.6014887
3 133.8080 2.5753318
4 85.56520 2.5734760
5 76.49975 2.5804008
Mean value of apparent density = 2.5818

Water content, W =
(M bulk − Mdry ) × 100%
M dry

Water content for sample No. 1, W1 =

(263.2 − 261.4) ×100%
261.4
1.8
= × 100 = 0.68859985%
261.4
Similarly, for specimen No. 2, 3, 4 and 5 can be calculated by using above equations:
W2 = 0.54881571%
W3 = 0.43719032%
W4 = 0.593878%
W5 = 0.50916497%
Mean value of water content = 0.555526 %

18. (a) Discuss briefly on uniaxial compressive strength test.

(b) From the following results of a series of triaxial compression test on granite
rock specimens measure the value of σ1 for each specimens and angle of
internal friction.
Specimen Diameter, Area, Max. Load σ1 Σ3
No. cm cm2 KN Mpa Mpa
1 3.05 7.3062 90.0 ? 2.00
2 3.05 7.3062 100.0 ? 4.00
3 3.05 7.3062 150.0 ? 6.00
4 3.05 7.3062 179.0 ? 8.00
(Note: 1 KN =101.9784 Kgf, 1 Mpa = 10.2 Kgf/cm2)

Answer;
(a) Uniaxial Compression Strength Test
In a perfect uniaxial tests should be done with a machine equipped with a
spherical compression head to ensure equal in magnitude loading the cross sectional
area of the test specimen Figure (A) with an ideal homogenous material, this
condition would be maintained for the complete duration of the test, right up to the
moment of final failure, and the strain field would also remain uniform. In practice, it
is exceedingly difficult to produce a perfectly uniform uniaxial stress field and it is
usually necessary to reach some compromise on distribution of stress field in the
vicinity of the boundaries to which external load is applied.

The compressive strength, σc is calculated from the equation

23
 P
σc =
A
Where, P = total applied load at failure
A = bearing area of specimen

(b) Table: Results of laboratory test

Specimen Diameter, Area, Max. Load σ1 Σ3
No. cm cm2 KN MPa MPa
1 3.05 7.3062 90.0 ? 2.00
2 3.05 7.3062 100.0 ? 4.00
3 3.05 7.3062 150.0 ? 6.00
4 3.05 7.3062 179.0 ? 8.00
(Note: 1 KN =101.9784 Kgf, 1 Mpa = 10.2 Kgf/cm2)

Max.Load × 101.9784Kgf
σ1 for sample No.1 = MPa = 123.15696 MPa
7.3062cm 2 × 10.2Kgfcm − 2
Similarly, for specimen No. 2, 3 and 4 can be calculate by using above equations:
σ1 for sample No.2 = 136.84107 MPa
σ1 for sample No.3 = 205.2616 MPa
σ1 for sample No.4 = 232.62982 MPa

Δσ1 = Δσ3
(1 + sin φ)
1 − sin φ
To calculate the angle of internal friction, the incremental strength of rock at low
confining pressure will be used;
For specimen No. 1 and No.2
Δσ1 = 136.84107 – 123.15696 = 13.6847
Δσ3 = 4.0 – 2.0 = 2.0

∴13.6847 = 2.0
(1 + sin φ)
1 − sin φ
sin φ = 0.7449744
φ = 48º 9' 24''

24
19. (a) Discuss briefly on triaxial compressive strength test.
(b) In a series of porosity tests of granite specimens, the following test results are
recorded as shown in the following table.
Table (4) Results of triaxial compression strength test
Specimen Diameter, Area, Max. Load σ1 Σ3
2
No. cm cm KN MPa MPa
1 3.04 7.2583 90.0 123.9954 2.00
2 3.04 7.2583 104.0 143.2835 4.00
3 3.04 7.2583 120.0 165.3272 6.00
4 3.04 7.2583 124.0 170.8381 8.00
Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock = 106.4176 MPa

(1) Determine
σ3
and 1
(σ − σ3 )2 to find the Hoek and Brown strenght parameters,
σc σc
‘m’ and ‘s’ from the graph.

(2) From the graph the values of ‘m’ and ‘s’ are obtained as 19.204 and 1.0
respectively. Calculated the value of σ1 at the failure if σ3 =10.5 MPa using Hoek and
Brown yield criterion.

Answer:
(a) Triaxial compressive strength test

The specimen is placed in a triaxial cell (e.g., Hoek-Franklin cell) and a

desired confining stress is applied and maintained by a hydraulic pump. The specimen
is then further compressed under a stiff compression machine with a spherical seating.
The axial stress is applied with a constant strain rates around 1 m/s such that failure
occurs within 5-15 minutes of loading. The load is measured by a load transducer.
Load, 2 axial strain or deformation and 2 lateral strains or deformation are recorded at
a fixed interval until failure. Triaxial compressive strength, Young’s modules (at 50%
of failure stress) and Poisson’s ratio (at 50% of failure stress) can be calculated from
the axial failure load, stress and strain relationship.

(b)

Specimen No.
σ3 (σ1 − σ3 )2
σc σc
1 0.0188 1.3142
2 0.0376 1.7131
3 0.0564 2.2416
4 0.0752 2.3415
To calculate the angle of internal friction, the incremental strength of rock at low
confining pressure will be used:
For specimen No.1 and No.2
Δσ1 = 96.750 – 80.625 = 16.125
Δσ3 = 6.0 – 3.0 = 3.0

25
 ∴16.125 = 3.0
(1 + sin φ)
1 − sin φ
sin φ = 0.6862745
φ = 43º 19' 48''
tan φ = 34.460816
(ii) from Graph m = 19.204 and s = 1.0
To calculate the value of σ1 at the failure if σ3 =10.5 MPa, use the following
gequation

σ1 (
= σ3 + mσcσ3 + sσc 2 )0.5

σ1 = 10.5 + [(19.204 × 106.4176 × 10.5) + (1.0 × 106.4176 × 106.4176)]0.5

= 191.5607 MPa

20. In a series of porosity tests of granite specimens, the following test results are
recorded as shown in the following table. Determine the mean value of porosity for
granite, specimens standard deviation and the coefficient of variation of the results.

Table(1) Results of Porosity Test

Diameter, Length, Mdry Msat
Sample No.
cm cm gm gm
1 DHY-33 6.07 7.44 543.0 547.0
2 DHY-34 6.07 7.27 532.0 535.0
3 DHY-35 6.07 9.14 675.0 680.0
4 DHY-36 6.07 6.43 472.0 475.0
5 DHY-37 4.75 7.22 330.0 333.0
6 DHY-38 4.75 7.27 332.0 335.0
7 DHY-39 4.75 7.33 333.0 335.0
8 DHY-40 4.75 7.24 330.0 332.0
9 DHY-41 4.75 8.68 395.0 397.0
10 DHY42 4.75 7.36 332.0 335.0

Pore volume Vv
Sample (M sat − M dry ) n= × 100%
Vv =
Vbulk = πr 2h
No. ρw
Vbulk
1 4 215.298 1.858
2 3 209.799 1.429
3 5 264.493 1.890
4 3 186.071 1.612
5 3 127.942 2.345
6 3 128.828 2.329
7 2 129.892 1.539
8 2 128.297 1.559
9 2 153.814 1.300
10 3 130.423 2.300
The mean value of porosity = 1.8161 %

26
Standard deviation,
n
∑ (x i − x )2
i =1
S2 =
n −1

S = 0.372%
0.372
(iii) Coefficient of variation of the results =
1.8161

= 0.205

21. In a series of porosity tests of granite specimens, the following test results are
recorded as shown in the following table. Determine the mean value of density
and water content.
Table: Results of Brazilian Tensile Strength Test
Sample Diameter, Length, Mdry Mbulk Rock
No. cm cm gm gm Type
1 DHY-4 4.73 5.81 261.40 263.20 Granite
2 DHY-6 4.73 7.615 346.20 348.10 Granite
3 DHY-6 4.73 7.615 343.10 344.60 Granite
4 DHY-10 4.50 5.38 218.90 220.20 Granite
5 DHY-12 4.50 4.81 196.40 197.40 Granite
6 DHY-16 4.50 4.90 200.40 201.30 Granite
7 DHY-19 4.50 4.15 151.00 151.80 Granite
8 DHY-22 4.73 7.61 343.90 345.90 Granite
9 DHY-26 4.73 9.51 437.00 440.00 Granite
10 DHY-27 4.73 9.53 436.00 440.00 Granite

Answer:

Sample πd 2 M bulk
M bulk Vbulk = ×L ρ bulk = × 100%
No. 4 Vbulk

1 263.20 102.0912 2.5781

2 348.10 133.8079 2.6015
3 344.60 133.8079 2.5753
4 220.20 85.5652 2.5735
5 197.40 76.4997 2.5804
6 201.30 77.9311 2.5831
7 151.80 66.0029 2.2999
8 345.90 133.7201 2.5867
9 440.00 167.1062 2.6331
10 440.00 168.8768 2.6054
The mean value of density = 2.5617 %

27
 Water content,
Sample No. W=
(
M bulk − M dry )
× 100%
M dry
1 0.6886
2 0.5488
3 0.4372
4 0.5939
5 0.5092
6 0.4492
7 0.5298
8 0.5816
9 0.6865
10 0.9174
The mean value of water content = 0.59422 %

22. (a) Mention the effects to be considered on compressive strength test.

(b) With the help of necessary equations, describe the procedure for testing of
density ,porosity and water content.

Answer:
(a) The effects to be considered on compression strength tests are:
(i) The effect of length and diameter ratio of the specimen
(ii) The effect of specimen volume and size
(iii) The effect of specimen shape
(iv) Loading rate of compressive strength
(v) The effect of moisture content

(b) (i) Density of Samples of Regular shape

The mass of the samples is weighted and its volume is calculated. The bulk
density is the mass per unit volume.

(ii) Density of Sample of Irregular Shape

The mass of the samples is weighed (Mbulk), the rock samples are saturated by
water immersion in a vacuum of 600 Pa for more than 1 hour, with periodic agitation
to remove trapped air. The samples are then transferred underwater to a basket in an
immersion bath. Their saturated-submerged mass Msub is determined from the
difference between the saturate-submerged mass of the basket plus sample and that of
the basket alone. The samples are then taken out from the immersion bath and surface
dried with a moist cloth, their saturated-surface-dry mass Msat is recorded. The bulk
volume (Vbulk) and bulk density (ρbulk) are calculated as:

28
 Vbulk =
(M sat − M sub ) ρ bulk =
M bulk
ρw Vbulk

(iii) Porosity of Rock Samples

Mbulk, Msat, Msub and Vbulk are determined using the same method as that for
density measurement of rock samples with irregular shape. The samples are dried to a
constant mass at a temperature of 105º C in an oven and cooled for 30 min in a
desiccators, and the dry mass Mdry is measured. Pore volume (Vv) and porosity (n) are
calculated by

Vv =
(M sat − M dry ) n=
Vv
× 100%
ρw Vbulk

(iv) Water Content of Rock Samples

Mbulk and Mdry are determined using the same method as that for density and
porosity measurement of rock samples with irregular shape. Water content (w) is
calculate by
w=
(
M bulk − Mdry )
× 100%
Mdry
Reporting of results includes description of the rocks, precautions taken to
retain water during sampling and storage.

23. Discuss briefly the following compression tests.

(a) Tensile tests
(b) Point load strength test

Answer:
(a) Tensile tests
(i) Direct Tension Test

Direct tension tests on rock materials are not common, de to the

difficulty in specimen preparation. For direct tension test, rock specimen is to be
prepared in dogbone shape with a thin middle. The specimen is then loaded in tension
by pulling from the two ends.
Deformation modulus can be measured by having strain gauges attached to the
specimen, calculation and the Young’s modulus and the Poisson’s ratio is similar to
that for the uniaxial compression test.

(ii) Indirect Tensile Strength Test (Brazilian Tensile Strength Test)

Alternative method for determination of tensile strength accepted as a

standard test is known as the direct or Brazilian tensile test. This method is very
simple and test procedures are as follow:

29
 1. The dimension of cylindrical specimen measured recorded.
2. The specimen is placed horizontally between the platens of compression
testing machine along the diametric plane (see Figure a).
3. The specimen is crushed with constant loading rate (100-200 psi) up to failure
and the maximum load is recorded.
4. Ultimate tensile strength is determined by the following formula.

2F
σt ≈
πDH

Where, σ t = Ultimate tensile strength, Kgf/cm2

F = Load applied to specimen, Kgf
D = Diameter of specimen, cm
H = Height of specimen, cm
(note; 1 KN= 101.9784 Kgf, 1 Mpa = 10.2 Kgf/cm2)

(b) Point Load Strength Test

In this method, a piece of core, generally 50-55 mm in diameter (or equivalent

diameter), is loaded the two hardened steel points of the point load test apparatus as
shown in Figure (b). The force, P, at which the specimen breaks is determined form
the peak pressure on the pressure gauge. The point strength index can be calculated
as:
P
Is = 2
D

Where, D = diameter of the core

According to the average of large numbers of determination of Is could be
correlated with the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock, Broch and Franklin
(1972) found the following correlation: for D = 50 mm,

σc = 24Is

For any other size, Bieniawski (1975) found that the following correlation:

σc = (14 + 0.175D )Is

Sometimes the facilities required to prepare specimens and carry out uniaxial
compression tests to standard described above are not available. And also the numbers
of tests are required to determine the range of rock types encountered on a project
may become prohibitive. For these conditions, the point load test may be used to
provide an indirect estimation for uniaxial compressive strength.

30
24. Briefly discuss on Terzaghi’s rock mass classification.

Answer:

The earliest reference to the use of rock mass classification for the design of
tunnel support is in a paper by Terzaghi (1046) in which the rock loads, carried by
steel sets, are estimated on the basis of a descriptive classification. While no useful
purpose would be served by including details of Terzaghi’s classification in this
discussion on the design of support, it is interesting to examine the rock mass
descriptions included in his original paper, because he draws attention to those
characteristics that dominate rock mass behaviour, particularly in situations where
gravity constitutes the dominant driving force. The clear and concise definitions and
the practical comments included in these descriptions are good examples of the type
of engineering geology information, which is most useful for engineering design.

Terzaghi’s descriptions (quoted directly from his paper) are:

(1) Intact rock contains neither joints nor hair cracks. Hence, if it breaks, it breaks
across sound rock. On account of the injury to the rock due to blasting, spalls may
drop off the roof several hours or days after blasting. This is known as a spalling
condition. Hard, intact rock may also be encountered in the popping condition
involving the spontaneous and violent detachment of rock slabs from the sides or roof.

(2) Stratified rock consists of individual strata with little or no resistance against
separation along the boundaries between the strata. The strata may or may not be
weakened by transverse joints. In such rock the spalling condition is quite common.

(3) Moderately jointed rock contains joints and hair cracks, but the blocks between
joints are locally grown together or so intimately interlocked that vertical walls do not
require lateral support. In rocks of this type, both spalling and popping conditions
may be encountered.

(4) Blocky and seamy rock consists of chemically intact or almost intact rock
fragments which are entirely separated from each other and imperfectly interlocked.
In such rock, vertical walls may require lateral support.

(5) Crushed but chemically intact rock has the character of crusher run. If most or all
of the fragments are as small as fine sand grains and no recementation has taken
place, crushed rock below the water table exhibits the properties of a water-bearing
sand.

(6) Squeezing rock slowly advances into the tunnel without perceptible volume
increase. A prerequisite for squeeze is a high percentage of microscopic and sub-
microscopic particles of micaceous minerals or clay minerals with a low swelling
capacity.

(7) Swelling rock advances into the tunnel chiefly on account of expansion. The
capacity to swell seems to be limited to those rocks that contain clay minerals such as
montmorillonite, with a high swelling capacity.

31
25. Explain the basic concept of Geomechanics classification (Bieniawski CSIR rock
map classification for the determination of the rock mass quality.

Answer:

In classification of the quality of jointed rock mass behavior, Bieniaski

suggested that the rock mass should be:
1. Divided into groups of similar behavior;
2. Provided a good basic for understanding the characteristics of the rock
mass;
3. Facilitated the planning and the design of structures in rock by yielding
quantitative data &
4. Provided a common basic for effective communication among all persons
concerned with Geomechanics problems.
Therefore, the adopted classification is:
1. Simple and meaningful in terms; and
2. Based on measurable parameters, which is determined quickly and cheaply
in the field.
In order to satisfy these requirements, Bieniawski proposed his Geomechanics
Classification, which should incorporate the following parameters:
(1) Rock Quality Designation (ROD)
(2) State of weathering,
(3) Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock,
(4) Spacing of joints and beddings,
(5) Strike and dip orientations,
(6) Separation of joints,
(7) Continuity of joints, and
(8) Ground water inflow.
In the practical application of the original CSIR Geomechanics Classification,
Bieniawski modified his classification system by eliminating the state of weathering
as a separate parameter since its effect is accounted for by the uniaxial compressive
strength, and by including the separation and continuity of joints in a new parameter,
the condition of joints in a new parameter. In addition, the strike and dip orientations
of joints were removed from the list of basic parameters had been considered.
Therefore, Bieniawski has considered the five basic classification parameters,
1. Strength or intact rock material
2. Rock Quality Designation.
3. Spacing of joints.
4. Condition of joints.
5. Ground water conditions.

26. (a) Write down the types of rock foundation and explain what you know.
(b) Discuss the failure mechanism of Rock Foundation.

Answer:

(a) Types of Rock Foundations are (i) spread footings, (ii) socketed piles
and (iii) Tension foundations.

32
(i) Spread footings
They are the most common and the least expansive foundations. They can be
constructed on any surface which has adequate bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics, and is accessible for construction. The bearing surface may be
inclined, in which case steel dowels or tensional anchors may be required to secure
the footing to the rock.

(ii) Socketed Piles

They are constructed by sint or drill a shaft into the underlying rock, where the
loads in individual footing are very high and the accessible bearing surface has in
adequate bearing capacity. The support provided by the socketed piles comprises the
side-wall shear resistance and end bearing.

(iii) Tension foundations

For structures that produce either permanent or transient uplift loads, support
can be provided by the weight of the structure and, if necessary, tie-down acchors
grouted into the underlying rock.

33
(b) Failure Mechanisms of Rock Foundations
Sr. Failure
Failure Mechanisms Example
No Type

Shear and
For heavily fracture and
deformatio
weak rock mass may
1 n of
leads to general wedge
fractured
failure of foundation
rock mass
For open joints of
vertical orientation
failure is by
Compressio compression. For widely
2
n of joints spaced vertical joints,
failure is initiated by
splitting and leading to
general shear

Punching Often for a rigid layer

3 or flexural overlying soft material
failure and process material

Breaking of Often ofr weathered rock

4
pinnacles surface

The most potentially

hazardous conditions are
Collapse of in karstareas where
shallow solution cavities may
5
cave and form under the structure
cavities so that the foundation
consists of only a thin
shell of competent rock

Slope Caused by superimposed

6
failure loading or block sliding

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 Where the applied load
from the structure
Side-wall
exceeds the support from
slide and
side-wall shear resistance
7 settlement
and end bearing of piles,
at the end
large settlement of
of piles
foundation deformation
may occur.

When at high stress

level, creep may also
Creep
8 occur due to degradation
failure
of rock subjected to
weathering.

27. (a) Classify the types of rock found and explain them.
(b) With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, describe the influence of
geological structure on foundation.
Answer:

(a) Types of Rock Foundations are (i) spread footings, (ii) socketed piles
and (iii) Tension foundations.

(i) Spread footings

They are the most common and the least expansive foundations. They can be
constructed on any surface which has adequate bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics, and is accessible for construction. The bearing surface may be
inclined, in which case steel dowels or tensional anchors may be required to secure
the footing to the rock.

(ii) Socketed Piles

They are constructed by sint or drill a shaft into the underlying rock, where the
loads in individual footing are very high and the accessible bearing surface has in
adequate bearing capacity. The support provided by the socketed piles comprises the
side-wall shear resistance and end bearing.

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(iii) Tension foundations
For structures that produce either permanent or transient uplift loads, support
can be provided by the weight of the structure and, if necessary, tie-down acchors
grouted into the underlying rock.

(b) Influence of Geological Structure on Foundation

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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 (e) (f)
Figure .
(a) Planar sliding failure on single fracture
(b) Wedge sliding failure on two intersecting fractures
(c) Toppling failure of steeply dipping slabs
(d) Circular failure in closely fractured rock
(e) Stable condition with no daylighting fractures
(f) Stable condition, but settlement possible

28. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, describe briefly on failure of rock
slopes.
Failure Circular Failure Plane Failure Wedge failure Topping
Type failure
Occurrenc Usually occurs in Occur in rocks with Occurs in rocks with Occurs in
e waste rock, heavily plane discontinuities, intersecting discon- rocks with
fracture rock and e.g, bedding planes. tinuities forming columnar or
week rock, with no wedgees block
identifiable structured structures
patten separated by
steeply diping
discontinuities
Failure The failure slurface is The sliding plan must Two joint planes and Rock block
Mechanis free to find a line of strike parallel or near slope plane cut rock widih/height <
m least resistnce through parallel (within ± 20) ot form a wedge that the gradient of
the slope. to the slope plane. The are “daylight” in the the toppling
The crushed or highly sliding plane must slope face, i.e., plane when the
fractured rock masses daylight) in the slops plunge of the line of dip angles of
are assuned to be face, i.e. dip angle of intersection of the the toppling
homogeneous and the sliding plane<dip joint (sliding) plane< the
shear strengths are angle of slopes. planes< dip angle of angle of
controlled by cohesion Dip angle of sliding the slope plunge of friction of this
and friction plane > friction angle the line of friction of plane (toppling
of sliding plane. the sliding planes only) when the
Lateral resistance ot dip angle of
sliding is negligible. the toppling
plane> the
angle of
friction of this
plane (mixed
toppling with
sliding)
Analysis (1) Analytical (1) hemispherical (1)hemispherical (1)hemispheric

37
 Method As projection projection method al projection
In Soil method (2)Analytical method
Mechanics (2) Analytical method (2)Analytical
(2) Note c and ф method method
are for rock (3) graphic
mass method
examples

29. Explain as much as you know about the design methodology for rock tunnel.
Design methodology
(i) Basis of design
a. The rock is used as a structural material
b. Geotechnical design is based primarily on precedents, i.e. empirical
methods
c. The design is related to construction procedures
d. The design is optimized on the basis of rock mechanics, usage,
construction methods and external factors
e. Numerical method; can be used to predict problem areas and to
extrapolate experience

(ii)

(a) temporary mine openings, (ESR = 3-5)

(b) permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydro electric projects,
pilot tunnels, drifts and heading for large excavations, (ESR = 1.6)
(c) storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and railway tunnels,
surge chambers and access tunnels in hydro-electric project, (ESR =
1.3)
(d) underground power station caverns, major road and railway tunnels,
civil defense chamber, tunnel portals and intersections, (ESR = 1.0)
(e) underground nuclear power stations, rail way stations, sports and
public facilities, underground factories, (ESR = 0.8)

(iii) Design sequence

(a) identification of the geometrical and physical requirements for the tunnel
(b) identification of areas with geology suitable for stunnel construction
(c) evaluation of the topography in relation ot the geometrical requirements
(d) location of suitable access to the underground facility
(e) evaluation of geological and hydrogeological data
(f) determination of optimal location, orientation, lay-out and geometry for the
tunnel or tunnel system based on the above factors
(g) optimization of the design with respet ot tunnel sue and construction methods,
which may include modification of the tunnel use
(h) evaluation of rock support measures

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(iv) Design factors

i. adequate rock cover

ii. avoid weakness zones
iii. cross weakness zones in the shortest possible distance
iv. avoid adverse orientation relative to maor jint sets
v. sufficient depth below the groundwater table, for some sues
vi. avoid rock with abnormally low stresses
vii. avoidance of tock with very high stresses

(v) Design of Rock support

Basis of Design:
(a) The rock is used as a structural material, i.e. primarily reinforcement
(b) Support design is based rock mass quality and precedents, i.e. empirical
methods
(c) Numerical methods can be used to predict problem areas and to extrapolate
experience
(d) Monitoring used lo verify the design

Approach
Preliminary design of rock support may be made on the basis of rock
classification, using either the Q-system or the RMR method. These methods allow
the most suitable type support to be determined for the various rock classes that have
been identified. This is primarily the Norwegian Method of Tunneling (NMT).
The new Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) is primarily an “observation
design” approach. It monitors the deformation of the tunnel and applies support
accordingly.
The best approach is to use the NMT method for preliminarily design, and to
monitor and verify the support design using NAIM approach.

30. With the help of neat diagrammatic sketches, write short notes on any Four of the
following basic concept of support design of rock tunnel.
(a) Support of rock tunnels
(b) Basis of support design
(c) Support design based on Rock Mass Classifications
(d) Support design based on controlled deformation
(e) Rock support interaction

(a) Support of rock tunnels

Support designs are primarily based on two approaches:

• Using rock mass classification to design support, for rock masses of all
qualities.
• Design support based on controlled deformation and observation,
generally for poor rock masses.
For good rock mass, where wedge/block falling or sliding is identified,
design to support blocks.

39
(b) Basis of support design
Rock is used as a structural material, i.e., often rock masses are not supported
but primarily reinforced.
Support design is based rock mass quality and precedents, i.e., empirical
methods, with deformation as design control/criterion.
Numerical methods are used to predict problem areas and to extrapolate
experience. Monitoring is used to verify and modify support.

(c) Support design based on Rock Mass Classifications

Rock support and reinforcement is designed based on rock mass quality
classifications (both Q and RMR) prior to construction.

i. Temporally reinforcement (often shotcrete in hard rock tunneling) is applied

immediately after excavation. It serves also as permanent reinforcement.
ii. Further permanent reinforcement is applied (bolts and shotcrete later.
iii. Monitoring is often done to verify design.

(d) Support design based on controlled deformation

Rock support is designed based observation of displacement and by
controlling the deformation.

i. Rock supports (often bolts and shotcrete) are applied based preliminary
assessment.
ii. Ground displacement is monitored with time. With sufficient supoort,
displacement is to stabilized.
iii. If the support is insufficient, displacement continues. Additional support is
applied to ensure the displacement is stabilized.

(e) Rock-support interaction

Rock-support interaction illustrate the rock-support interaction illustrate the
interaction between the rock mass surrounding the tunnel and the support material. It
si characterized by the load-deformation curve of a tunnel and available support curve
of the support material.

BY
TU (Hmawbi)
[email protected]
09-5030281,01-620072/620454

*************************The End*************************

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