DO NOT COPY THIS ON PRACTICAL FILE
Write on ruled side: Aim, Apparatus, Theory, Precautions, Source of errors, Result
Write on white side: Circuit Diagram, Observation Table
Draw Graph at the end of File
After writing the Experiments from this file, write Activities 3,4,5 from Section A and Activities
2,3,5 from section B. Write Activities from Practical File
Section A - Experiment 1
Aim:
To determine resistivity of two/ three wire by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
Apparatus:
A battery, Voltmeter (0 - 3V), Ammeter (0 – 3A), Low resistance rheostat, resistance wire, one way key, a metre
scale, screw gauge, connecting wires and piece of sand paper.
Theory: According to Ohms law, at constant temperature, the electric current flowing in a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends. i.e. , where R is a constant called Resistance of
the conductor.
( )
Resistivity of wire is given by
Observations
Least count of voltmeter: 0.05 V
Least count of Ammeter: 0.05 A
Length of the wire: 10 cm
Pitch of Screw = 1 mm
Least Count of Screw Gauge =
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight
2. The rheostat should have low resistance
3. Clean all the connecting wires with sandpaper before connecting
4. The key should be inserted only while taking readings.
Source of errors
1. The connecting wire may not be thick
2. The rheostat may have high resistance value
3. Connections may not be tight
Result
Using Graph
Resistivity of wire is =
Circuit Diagram:
Observation Table
S. Ammeter Voltmeter Resistance
No. reading I (A) reading V (V) ( )
1 0.6 0.5 0.83
2 1.25 1.0 0.80
3 1.75 1.5 0.85
4 2.32 2.0 0.86
Mean value of Resistance
Table for measuring diameter of wire
S. Linear Scale Circular Scale Measurement =
No. Reading Reading LSR + LC x CSR
1 0 52 0.52
2 0 51 0.51
3 0 49 0.49
Mean value of Diameter
Resistivity of material of wire
( )
( )
Section A - Experiment 2
Aim: To find the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide wire bridge ), DC supply, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a
one way key, a resistance wire, connecting wire, a piece of sand paper.
Theory:
Unknown resistance can be found using meter bridge. It works on the principle of balanced wheat-stones bridge. For
balanced condition of metre bridge at length l,
( )
Where ‘R’ is the known resistance placed in the left gap & unknown resistance/wire ‘S’ is in the right gap of Meter
Bridge. ‘l’ is length of meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance.
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight
2. The rheostat should have low resistance
3. Clean all the connecting wires with sandpaper before connecting
4. The key should be inserted only while taking readings.
Source of errors
1. The connecting wire may not be thick
2. The rheostat may have high resistance value
3. Connections may not be tight
Result: The value of resistance of wire is S = 0.57
Circuit Diagram:
Observation table
S.No. Resistance of Length l (cm) (100 – l) Resistance of wire
Box () cm 100 l
S R
l
1 0.5 55.3 44.7 0.40
2 0.7 60.7 39.3 0.45
3 1 61.9 38.1 0.62
4 1.5 65.3 34.7 0.78
5 2 77.6 22.4 0.58
Section A - Experiment 3
Aim
To verify the law of series combination of resistance using metre bridge.
Apparatus:
Meter Bridge, two different resistance coil, galvanometer, resistance box, jockey, one way key, battery, battery
eliminator, connecting wires and sand paper.
Theory:
Unknown resistance can be found using meter bridge. It works on the principle of balanced wheat-stones bridge. For
series combination .
For balanced condition of metre bridge at length l,
( )
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight
2. The rheostat should have low resistance
3. Clean all the connecting wires with sandpaper before connecting
4. The key should be inserted only while taking readings.
Source of errors
1. The connecting wire may not be thick
2. The rheostat may have high resistance value
3. Connections may not be tight
Result:
Equivalent Resistance of two resistors in series combination from formulae is R = 1.119 + 0.62 = 1.739
Equivalent Resistance of two resistors in series combination as measured by meter-bridge is 1.847
Circuit Diagram
Observations table
Resistance connected Resistance of Balance Length BC Unknown Mean
Resistance point length (100-l) resistance resistance
box R AB (l) ( )
Connecting first resistance 2 65 35 1.077 1.119
in right gap 4 77.5 22.5 1.161
Connecting second 2 75.7 24.3 0.642 0.62
resistance in right gap 4 87 13 0.598
Connecting both 2 52 48 1.846 1.847
resistance in series 4 68.4 31.6 1.848
combination in right gap
Section A - Experiment 4
Aim:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus
A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes,
two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of
sand paper.
Precautions:
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of cell or battery should be constant.
4. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit
Source of Error:
1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.
2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size
Result:
Resistance of Galvanometer = 25.11
Figure of Merit =
Circuit Diagram:
Table for Resistance of Galvanometer by half deflection method
S.No. Resistance Deflection in Shunt Half Deflection Galvanometer Resistance
R( ) Galvanometer Resistance ( ⁄ ) ( )
( ) S( )
1 5000 12 30 6 30.18
2 6000 10 25 5 25.10
3 7000 8 20 4 20.05
Mean value of Resistance of Galvanometer
Table for Figure of merit
S.No. Resistance Galvanometer Figure of merit
from RB. R ( ) deflection
( )
1 5000 12
2 6000 10
3 7000 8
Mean value of Figure of merit
Section B - Experiment 1
Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
Apparatus:
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens
with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half metre scale.
Precautions:
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.
Source of Error:
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Result:
Focal length from table is = 20.51 cm
Focal length from graph is = 20.5 cm
Ray Diagram:
Observation Table:
S.No. Position of Observed Distance Focal
( ) ( )
Object Lens Image Object Image length
needle O (cm) needle distance distance
A (cm) C (cm) u v
1 108 66 27 42 39 0.024 0.027 20.22
2 104 66 23 38 43 0.026 0.023 20.17
3 101 66 21 35 45 0.029 0.022 22.5
4 98 66 14 32 52 0.031 0.019 19.81
5 97 66 11 31 55 0.032 0.018 19.83
Mean value of Focal length from table
Section B - Experiment 2
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench having meter scale, 4 uprights, two optical needle, knitting needles, one convex lens
with a lens holder, one convex mirror with a mirror holder
Theory:
The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and erect. Therefore its focal length cannot be determined directly.
However, it can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the convex mirror. Focal length
of convex mirror f = R /2 where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.
Precautions:
1. The uprights supporting the needle lens and mirror must be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from the image needle.
3. The parallax should be removed from tip to tip of the needle.
4. The lens of large focal length should be used.
5. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should be small, otherwise the image formed will be
distorted.
Sources of Error:
1. Focal length of lens may not be small.
2. The upright may not be vertical.
3. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious.
Results: The focal lengths of the given convex mirror = 15.1 cm.
Ray Diagram:
Observation table:
S.No. Position of mirror Position of image Radius of Focal length f =
(cm) (cm) curvature R (cm) R/2 (cm)
1 36 4 32 16
2 42 13 29 14.5
3 45 18 27 13.5
4 43 10 33 16.5
Section B - Experiment 3
Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins, graph
paper and a protractor.
Observation:
Angle of Prism =
The value of minimum deviation is = 32°
Refractive index of prism
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Precautions:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
Source of Error:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
Result:
Angle of minimum deviation is = 32°
Refractive index of prism =
Observation Table:
S.No. Angle of Incidence Angle of deviation
(i) ( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
Section B - Experiment 4
Aim: To draw the I-V characteristics curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction diode, 5V battery and 40V battery, milli-ammeter and micro-ammeter, 2 V voltmeter and
40V voltmeter, high resistance rheostat, one way key, connecting wires and sand paper
Theory:
1. Forward biasing: When the p side of p-n junction is connected to the positive terminal of the source, it is said to be
forward biased.
2. Reverse biasing: When the p side of p-n junction is connected to the negative terminals of the source, it is said to be
reverse biased.
Observations:
1. Forward biasing 2. Reverse biasing:
(i) Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to 2 V (i) Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to 40 V
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter = 0.05 V (ii) Least count of the voltmeter = 1 V
(iii) Zero error of the voltmeter = 0 V (iii) Zero error of the voltmeter = 0 V
(iv) Range of the ammeter = 0A to 10 mA (iv) Range of the microammeter = to
(v) Least count of the milliammeter = 0.2 mA (v) Least count of the microammeter =
(vi) Zero error of the milliammeter = 0 mA (vi) Zero error of the microammeter =
Precautions
1. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
2. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
3. Voltmeter and milli-ammeter of appropriate range is selected.
4. Zero error of the instruments is corrected at the onset of the experiment.
5. Battery connections are checked carefully while taking reading for forward-bias and reverse-bias.
Source of Error
1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.
2. Each time the pointer of ammeter may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.
4. Personal errors
Result:
1. The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction. It does not obey ohm’s law since the curve is not a straight line.
2. The graph shows the p-n junction has directional characteristic when forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased.
Circuit Diagram:
Observations table:
S. No Forward Forward S. No Reverse Reverse
Bias voltage Bias Current Bias voltage Bias Current
(V) (mA) (V) ( )
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0.1 0 2 2 2
3 0.2 0 3 4 4
4 0.3 0 4 6 5
5 0.4 0 5 8 6
6 0.5 0.5 6 10 9
7 0.6 1.6 7 12 12
8 0.7 4 8 14 13
9 0.8 8 9 16 22
Graph 1:
Graph 2:
Graph 3:
Graph 4:
Section A Activity 5 table
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