Experiment NO 1

Object -
To determine resistivity of two / three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference
versus current
Required Apparatus:
Two resistance wires, a voltmeter (0-3)V and an ammeter (0-3 se) A of
appropriate range, a battery/battery eliminator, a rheostat, a meter scale, a one-
way key, connecting wires, and a screw gauge.
Formula Used:
By Ohm’s law

Where R is the constant of proportionality, it is known as the resistance of the

conductor. R depends on the nature of the material, temperature and dimension of the
conductor.
Specific resistance (ρ) of the material is given by

Where L is the length and D is the diameter of the given wire

Circuit Diagram:

Observations:

 Range of ammeter = (0 – 3) A
 The least count of ammeter = 0.05 A
 Range of voltmeter = (0 -3) V
 The least count of voltmeter = 0.05 V
 The least count of metre-scale (L.C.) =0.1 cm
Zero error, e=0 mm, Zero correction, c = 0 mm
For 1st wire:
Length of the given wire, L= 15 cm = 0.15 m
Observation Table for Resistance

Mean value of resistance, R=

Table for Diameter of wire:

Calculation for Specific Resistance:

Graph – Potential difference versus Current

For 2nd wire:

Length of the given wire, L= 29cm = 0.29cm
Observation table for Resistance:

Ta
ble for Diameter of wire:
Calculation for Specific Resistance:

Graph – Potential difference versus Current:

Result:

 Resistance of first wire from table = 1.04 Ω and from graph 1.05 Ω
-8
 Resistivity of 1st wire=48.98×10 Ω-m
 Percentage error = 0.04%.
 Resistance of 2nd wire from table = 2.06 Ω and from graph = 2.00 Ω
 Resistivity of 2nd wire = 50.19×10-8 Ω-m
 Percentage error = 2.43%.
Precautions:

1. The connection should be neat clean and tight.

2. Thick connections wire should be used for the connections.
3. The voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low-resistance rehosteat should be used.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observation to avoid heating of
resistance.
 6. At one place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two mutually
perpendicular directions.
7. The wire should not make a loop.
EXPERIMENT NO 2
Object - To find resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using meter bridge.
Apparatus: A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a
laclanche cell, a jockey, a one-way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale,
set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.

Observation

Observation Table for length( l)& unknown resistance,X:

Resistance Unknown
Sr. Length Length Resistance
No. from AB=lcm BC=(100-l)cm X=
resistance (100 -l)
box R (ohm) R. Ω
l
1 2 41 59 2.87
2 4 60 40 2.66
3 6 69 31 2.69
4 8 76 24 2.52
Calculation

Result: Value of unknown resistance = 2.68 Ω

Precautions: All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be
inserted only while taking observations.
Sources of Error: Plugs may not be clean. Instrument screws maybe loose.
Experiment No 3 ( A)
Object - To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,
two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Theory – When two resistance r1 and r2 are in series then resultant resistance
Rs= r1+r2
Observations: Table for length (l) & unknown resistance (r):
Resistance Length
from Resistanc Mean
Resistan Obs. Length BC=100–l e 100-l Resist
t Coil No. resistance AB=l(cm (cm) r= .R
box, l ant
R(ohm) ) (ohm)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r1only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
1 0.5 30 70 1.16
r2only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1 1.3 34 66 2.52
r1&r2in 2 2.2 45 55 2.68 2.72
series 3 3.5 54 46 2.97
Calculations:
(i) In Series: Experimental value of RS = 2.72 Ω
Theoretical value of RS = r1 + r2 = 2.75 Ω
Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RS
are same. Hence the law of resistance in series i.e. RS = r1 + r2 is verified.
Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error: (i) The plugs may not be clean. (ii) The instrument screws maybe
loose
Experiment No 3 ( B)
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge
Apparatus: A meter bridge, laclanche cell, a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey,
two resistances wires, set square, sand paper and connecting wires.

Theory – When two resistance r1 and r2 are in series then resultant resistance
r 1∗r 2
Rp=
r 1 +r 2

Observations: Table for length (l) & unknown resistance (r):

Resistance Length
from Resistance Mea
Resistan Obs. Length BC=100–l 100-l n
t Coil No. resistance AB=l(cm (cm) r= .R
box, l Resi
R(ohm) ) stan
t
(oh
m)
1 0.5 35 65 0.92
r1only 2 1.0 43 57 1.32 1.24
3 1.5 50 50 1.5
1 0.5 30 70 1.16
r2only 2 1.0 38 62 1.63 1.51
3 1.5 46 54 1.76
1 2 75 25 0.67
r1&r2in 2 3 82 18 0.66 0.66
parallel 3 4 86 14 0.65
(ii) In parallel: Experimental value of RP = 0.66 Ω
Theoretical value of
r 1∗r 2
Rp= =0.66 Ω
r 1 +r 2

Result:
Within limits of experimental error, experimental & theoretical values of RP are same.
r ∗r
1 2
Hence law of resistances in parallel i.e. R p = r +r is verified.
1 2

Precautions:
(i) The connections should be neat, clean & tight.
(ii) Move the jockey gently over the wire & don’t rub it.
(iii) All plugs in resistant box should be tight.
Sources of Error:
(i) The plugs may not be clean.
(ii) The instrument screws maybe loose.
Experiment NO 4
AIM
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find
its figure of merit.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
A Weston type galvanometer, a battery or battery eliminator, Two resistance boxes,
Two one-way keys, connecting wires
Formulae Used:
(i) The resistant of the given galvanometer as found by half-deflection method: G =
RXS
R−S
Where R: resistance connected in series with the galvanometer .
S: shunt resistance
E
(ii) Figure of merit: k = ( R+G)θ
Where E : emf of the cell : ϴ deflection produced with resistance
OBSERVATIONS

Calculation: Mean G = 70.8 Ω

(i) For G : Calculate G using formula. Take mean of all values of G recorded in table.
(ii) For k: Calculate k using formula & record in table. Take mean of values of k.

Result: (i) Resistance of Galvanometer by half – deflection method: G = 70.8 Ω

ii) Figure of merit, k = 2.19 x 10-5 A/div

Precautions: (i) All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight. (ii) The emf of cell
or battery should be constant. (iii) Initially a high resistance from the resistance box
(R) should be introduced in the circuit. Otherwise for small resistance, an excessive
current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter & damage them.

Sources of error: (i) Plug of the resistant boxes may not be clean. (ii) The screws of
the instruments maybe loose. (iii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.

Section B
Experiment No 5
Aim: To find the value of v for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to
find its focal length.
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights. Concave mirror, a mirror holder,
two optical needles, a knitting needle & a half – meter scale.

Formulae Used: The mirror formula is: We have,

Where, f = focal length of concave mirror.

u = distance of object needle from pole of mirror.

v = distance of image needle from pole of mirror.

Observation: Rough focal length of given concave mirror = 10.9 cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = 15 cm

Observed distance between the mirror & object needle when knitting needle is placed
between them, y = 15.2 cm.

Observed distance between the mirror & image needle when knitting needle is placed
between them, z = 15.8 cm.

Index error for u, e1 = y – x = – 0.2 cm

Index error for v, e2 = z – x = – 0.8 cm

Observation
Position Corrected
Sr. Distance 1/u 1/
No. Concave Objec Imag PO PI (cm-1) v(c
Mirror P t e U cm v cm m-1)
(cm) Needle Needl
O eI
1 0.0 18 26 17.8 25.2 0.056 0.037
2 0.0 17 30.3 16.8 29.5 0.06 0.034
3 0.0 16 33.4 15.8 32.6 0.063 0.031
4 0.0 26 18 25.8 17.2 0.038 0.058
5 0.0 30.3 17 30.1 16.2 0.033 0.061
6 0.0 33.4 16 33.2 15.2 0.030 0.065
Precautions:
(i) The uprights should be vertical.
(ii) Tip-to-tip parallax should be removed between the needle I and image of needle O.
(iii) To locate the position of the image the eye should be at least 30 cm away from the
needle.
Sources of Error: * The uprights may not be vertical. * Parallax removal may not be
perfect

Experiment No 6
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.

Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights (2 fixed upright in middle two outer
uprights with lateral movement), convex lens, convex mirror, a lens holder, a mirror
holder, 2 optical needles (one thin, one thick), a knitting needle, a half meter scale
Formula Used:

Focal length of a convex mirror f= R/2

Where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.

Observation: (i) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.

(ii) Observed distance between image needle I and back of convex mirror, y = 15 cm

(iii) Index error = y - x = 15 – 15 = 0 cm No index correction

Observation Table:
Positio no f: Radius of
S. N. Object Lens Mirror Image Curvatur
needle L cm M cm needle e MI
0 (cm) I (cm) (cm)
1 25 50 56 70.5 14.5
2 28.5 50 60 73.3 13.3
3 31.5 50 65 78.4 13.4
4 30.5 50 60 74 14
Mean R= 13.8
Calculation: Mean corrected MI = R = 13.8 cm f = R/2 =13.8/2 =6.9 cm

Result: The focal length of the given convex mirror = 6.9 cm

Precautions: (i) The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror & centre of lens should be
at the same height.

(ii) Convex lens should be of large focal length.

(iv) For one set of observations, when the parallax has been removed for convex
lens alone, the position of the lens & needle uprights should not be changed.

Experiment No 7
Object -
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or
between 1/u and 1/v.
Apparatus: An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, lens holder, two
optical needles, a knitting needles & a half-metre scale
Formula Used: The relation between u, v and f
1 1 1
for convex lens is: f = v − u

Where f: focal length of convex lens

u: distance of object needle from lens’ optical centre.

v: distance of image needle from lens’ optical centre.

Observations: (i) Rough focal length of the lens = 10 cm

(ii) Actual length of knitting needle, x = 15 cm.

(iii) Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is
placed between them, y = 15.2 cm.

(iv) Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is
placed between them, z = 14.1 cm.

(v) Index correction for the object distance u, x – y = – 0.2 cm

(vi) Index correction for the image distance v, x – z = +0.9 cm

Observation Table:
Positionof: (cm)
S. Obje Ima u (cm) v(cm) 1/v(cm-1) 1/u(cm-1)
ct Lens ge
No. need need
le le
1 66 50 26 16 24 0.041 0.062
2 67 50 27 17 23 0.043 0.058
3 68 50 28 18 22 0.045 0.055
4 70 50 30 20 20 0.05 0.05
5 75 50 33 23 17 0.058 0.043
6 80 50 34 24 16 0.062 0.041
Calculation of focal length by graphical method:

(i) u – v graph: The graph is a rectangular hyperbola: Scale: X’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of

u Y’ axis: 1 cm = 5 cm of v AB = AC = 2f or OC = OB = 2f
Precautions: (i) Tips of object & image needles should be at the same height as the
centre of the lens.

(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip-to-tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30
cm. away from the needle.
(iii) The image & the object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of
observations

Experiment No 8
Aim: To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

Apparatus: An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens (less focal length), a
concave lens (more focal length), two lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle & a half – metre scale.

Formulae Used: From lens formula, we have:

1 1 1
= −
f v u

Observations: Actual length of knitting needle, x= 15 cm.

Observed distance between object needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed
between them, y = 15 cm.

Observed distance between image needle & the lens when knitting needle is placed
between them, z = 15 cm.

Index correction for u = x – y = 0 cm

Index correction for v = x – z = 0 cm

Observation Table:
Positionof(cm) uv
S.No 0 (cm) L atO u =IL2 v =I’L2 f= uv
.
1 1 I L2 I’
1 29 50 75 69 78 6.0 9.0 –18.0
2 27 50 71.5 65 77.5 6.5 12.5 –13.54
3 25 50 70.5 65 72.8 5.5 7.8 –18.64
4 28 50 71.3 63 71.2 8.3 8.2 –17.45
Calculations:

Result: The focal length of given concave lens = – 17 cm.

Precautions:

(i) The lenses must be clean.

(ii) A bright image should be formed by lens combination.

(iii) Focal length of the convex lens should be less than the focal length of the concave
lens, so that the combination is convex.

EXPERIMENT – 9

Aim: (i) To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a
graph between angle of incidence & angle of deviation.

(ii) To determine the refractive index of the material (glass) of the prism.

Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half
metre scale, office pins, graph paper & protector.
Formulae Used: The refractive index μ, of the material of the prism is given by:

Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation & A is the angle of prism.

Observation Table

Calculations:
From graph between angle of incidence, and angle of deviation, we get the value of
Dm (angle of minimum deviation): Dm = 37.80
(i) From ∠i and ∠D graph we see that as ∠i increases, ∠D first decreases, attains a
Result:

minimum value (Dm) & then again starts increasing for further increase in ∠i .
(ii) Angle of minimum deviation = Dm = 37.80

(iii) Refraction index of material of prism μ, = 1.5077

Precautions: (i) The angle of incidence should be between 30o – 60o.

(ii) The pins should be fixed vertical.

(iii) The distance between the two pins should not be less than 8 cm.

Sources of Error: (i) Pin pricks may be thick.

 (ii) Measurement of angles maybe wrong

EXPERIMENT –10

Aim: To determine the refractive index of a glass using travelling microscope.

Apparatus: A marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.

Observations: Least count of travelling microscope = 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm

Mean values: r1 = 0 mm r2 = 6.81 mm r3 = 10.25 mm

Observations: Reading of Microscope focused on:

:
Mark without Mark with slab Powder on top of
S. slab r1=M +n x on it r2=M +n slab R3=M +nx
No. LC min xLC min LCmin
1 0 6.5 + 29 x0.01 = 10 + 23 x0.01 =
6.79mm 10.23mm
2 0 6.5 + 31 x0.01 = 10 + 25 x0.01 =
6.81mm 10.25mm
3 0 6.5 + 33 x0.01 = 10 + 27 x0.01 =
6.83mm 10.27mm
Calculations:

Real depth = dr = r3 – r1 = Mean dr = 10.25 mm Apparent depth = da = r2 – r1 Mean

da = 6.81 mm
Result: The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is
determined as 1.52 =μ

Precautions: (i) Microscope once focused on the cross mark, the focusing should not
be disturbed throughout the experiment. Only rack and pinion screw should be turned
to move the microscope upward. (ii) Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on
top of slab.

(iii) Eye piece should be so adjusted that cross-wires are distinctly seen.

EXPERIMENT – 11

Aim: To draw the I – V characteristics curve of p-n junction in forward bias & reverse
bias.

Apparatus: A p-n junction semi-conductor diode, a three volt battery, a high

resistance, a rheostat, a voltmeter (0- 3v), a milli ammeter (0-.30 mA), one – way key,
connecting wires.
Observations: Least count of voltmeter = 0.02 & 1 v/div Zero error = –

Least count of milli-ammeter = 0.2 mA/div Zero error = –

Least count of micro-ammeter = 2A/div Zero error = –

Observation Table:
Forward Bias Forward Reverse bias Reverse
S. No. Current
Voltage (V) Current Voltage
( A)
(mA) (V)
1 10 x 0.02= 0.20 2 x 0.2 =0.4 10 x 1 = 10 5 x 2 = 10
2 0.30 4 x 0.2 =0.8 15 16
3 0.40 6 x 0.2 =1.6 20 22
4 0.50 11 x 0.2 =2.2 25 30
5 0.60 18 x 0.2 =3.6 30 38
6 0.70 23 x 0.2 =4.6 35 48
7 0.80 31 x 0.2 =6.2 40 60
8 0.90 39 x 0.2 =7.8 45 72
Calculations: Graph is plotted between forward – bias voltage (VF) (on x-axis) and
forward current, IF (on y – axis) Scale: X – axis: 1 cm = V of VF Y – axis: 1 cm = mA
of IF Graph is plotted between reverse bias voltage, VR (along X’ axis) and reverse
current, IR (along Y’ axis). Scale: X’ axis = 1 cm = V of VR Y’ axis = 1 cm = of IF

Result: The obtained curves are the characteristics curves of the semi-conductor
diode.

Precautions: (i) All connections should be neat, clean & tight.

(ii) Key should be used in circuit & opened when the circuit is not being used.

(iii) Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of error: The junction diode supplied maybe faulty. A