Verification of Ohm's Law Aim: To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of Potential difference versus current. Apparatus: A coil or resistance wire, a voltmeter, an ammeter, battery, a rheostat, connecting wires. Circuit Diagram: Rheestat Formula: R= V/I Procedure: 1. Make the connections according to the circuit diagram. 2, Determine the Least count (L.C) of voltmeter and milliammeter. 3. Adjust the rheostat so as to pass minimum current. 4, Adjust the rheostat for different values of potential difference and note down the corresponding current, 5. Take at least 6 sets of readings. 6. Plot a graph of V v/s |. Observations: 1.LCofvoltmeter = Vv 2. LC of milliammeter = mA 3, Length of the wire (L) = cmObservation table: VA) |Vivort)]R (a) Result: Resistance of the given wire per cm from graph is found to be Q/cm.DEVIATION JN A PRISM me Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting 3 graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation. Apparatus: Drawing board, white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, protractor and office pins. Ray diagram: Procedure: 1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins. 2. Mark the boundary of the prism. 3. Draw the normal to one face of the prism and draw the incident ray. 4. Fix two office pins P, and P vertically on the incident ray. The distance between the pins should be Sem or more. 5. Look at the images of points P, and P. through face AC. 6, Close your left eye and bring your right eye in line with the two images. 7. Fix 2 more office pins P; and P, vertically so that you can see pins P,, P2, Ps & Py ina straight line. 8. Remove all the four pins and encircle their pricks on the paper, 9. Draw the emergent ray and produce the incident ray to measure the angle of deviation (2 5). 10. Measure the angle of deviation (z 5). 11. Repeat the experiment for different values of angle of incidence (< i). 12. Plot a graph of 6 v/siOF cCoNvex LENS CAL LENGTH,BY GRAPHICAL METHOD (u-v method Aim: To find the focal length of the convex lens by plotting a graph of u v/s. js Apparatus: Convex lens, 2 index pins, meter scale, lens stand, thread and chalk. Ray Diagram: Procedure: 1. Find the approximate focal length of the convex lens. 2. Mount the lens in the'holder. 3. Keep the index pins on either side of the lens. 4. Adjust the tips of the pins at the same vertical level at the center of the lens. 5. Mark one pin as object (0) and the other as image (1). 6. Shift the object to a length of more than 2F from the lens. 7, Look from the other side of the lens along the principal axis and adjust the image pin such that the parallax between the object and image is removed. 8, Note the positions of the object and image from the lens as ‘u’ & ‘v’ resp. 9. Repeat the experiment for different positions of the object. 10. Plot a graph of u v/s v. Observation: Approximate focal length, f = cmObservation table: Obs. [Position of | U(object | V (image | No. | object dist) cm dist) cm Beyond 2F | Beyond 2F ‘Beyond 2F | eA or a Between F & 2F Between F & 2F 2F = (I x- int +1y—int 1/2 F=(Ix-intl+ly—int!)/4 = cm Result: Focal length by u-v method = cmSPECIFIC RESISTANCE py METER BRIDGE Aim: To find the resistance of a given wire using the meter bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of its material. Apparatus: Meter bridge, cell, galvanometer, resistance box, jockey, one way key, resistance wire, a screw gauge, connecting wires. Formula: Unknown resistance X = R Lx/L, Specific resistance p = X1rD7/4L Circuit Diagram: Procedure: | F k Rheostat 1, Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram, with the unknown resistance X in the left gap of the meter bridge. 2, Take some convenient value of R in resistance box. 3. Pass some current through the circuit and make contact with the help of jockey at both ends of the wire of the meter bridge. 4. The deflection should be on either side of the galvanometer. 5. By sliding the jockey on the wire obtain the null point between 40 to 60 cm. 6. Measure Lx and L,. 7. Repeat the experiment by connecting X in the right gap. 8. Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four different places.Observation: 1. For unknown resistance X: [OB] Resitancein J —& [Tefteap | rightgap | (0) (em) | (em) (a) x R x R x R ak R x ® x ® x MeanX=____9 2. For specific resistance: Diameter of wire L.Cof screw gaug, mm Zero error,e=__mm Obs. [MSR] CSR | bxtc=c ate Die No. | (mm) (mm) (mm) z e (mm) 1 2 3 Length of wire L=__em Result: 4) The value of unknown resistance, X = 9 2) The specific resistance of material of wire amVERIFICATION OF LAW OF RESISTANCES IN SERIES AND MERIFICATION OF LAW OF RESISTANCES IN SERIES AND PARALLEL Aim: To verify the law of resistances in series and parallel using a metre bridge. Apparatus: Metre Bridge, jockey, cell, plug key, rheostat, galvanometer, unknown resistances, resistance box, connecting wires. Formula: 1) Unknown resistance is given by We Res on Where /is balancing length corresponding to X Jk. is balancing length corresponding to R 2) Resistance of series combination Xs =X + Xo 3) Resistance in parallel combination yp a 21k Xe OKe Circuit Diagram:x Xa x WWW —Wwry www Resistances in Series Xn Parotlel Resistances “% Procedure: 1) Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram with one of the resistances X; in the left gap of the metre bridge. 2) Take some convenient value of R in the resistance box. 3) Pass current through the circuit and make contact with the help of the jockey at both the ends of the wire. 4) The deflection should be on either side of the galvanometer. 5) By sliding the jockey on the wire, obtain the null point between 40 to 60 cm. 6) Measure L, and Ly. 7) For one more value of R obtain the null point on the wire. 8) Repeat the experiment by connecting X; in the right gap and R in the left gap. 9) Repeat the steps from 1 to 8 for X and then for series and parallel combinations of X ; and X2. Observation table: 1) For Xs [| Resistance in 5 Mean | | Xx R (ee ree | | Rightgap| Q | cm | cm | Q R R ala lac! X 4 R Xt2) For X, |__ Resistance | NERA Obs. | Ro ae ig ea ee No | Left gap | Right gap cm | cm | eC tor ae =i ih mes | ls | gas 3 R ia a0 | Sete | a 3) For X; | essence in | oe | Obs. R i ny Xs ms No |Leftgap| Rightgap| © cm cm Q ae R | 2 x Reeal| aif Xs. | | 4 R Xs male. i= | 4) For Xp le Resistance in Mean Saech | x, Obs. R Ie le Xp A No |.Left gap | Right gap cm | cm a ia exe R Dial R 3 R Xp 4 R XpResult: 1) Resistances:in series, Xsexpt Resistances in series, Xs neo 2) Resistances in parallel, Xp expt Resistances in parallel, Xptheo = Hence the law of resistances is verified. oa 2RESISTANCE OF A GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION METHOD RESISTANCE OF A GALVANOMETER BY HALF DEFLECTION METHOD. Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit. Apparatus: Galvanometer, cells, two plug keys, two resistance boxes (50009 and 5009), connecting wires Circuit Diagrams: For haif- deflection method | aE Y For figure of meritFormula: For resistance of the given galvanometer R.S R=-S For figure of merit E ec (R+6)0 Where E is the e.m.f of the cell. @ is the deflection produced with the resistance R. PROCEDURE: (Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection) 1) Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram. 2) Adjust the value of R so that the deflection is maximum and even in number. 3) Note the deflection @. 4) Insert key Kz and without changing the value of R adjust S, so that the deflection in the galvanometer reduces to half the value (5). 5) Note the value of S. 6) Repeat the experiment for different values of R and S. 7) Find the e.m.f. E of the cell using a multimeter. Observation: Ee VvObservation table: Obs. | Resistance [Deflection |Shunt| @ | | _ RS |) _ 2 No. R In galv. Ss 2 ~R-S ~ (R+G)6 | (9) (@) (9) | (a) A/div 1 | li sal bie (2; 3 a a Eo Result: 1) Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method, G= 2 2) Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k = A/ div.CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO VOLTMETER Aim: To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter of known range and to verify the same. Apparatus: Galvanometer, voltmeter, cells, plug key, resistance box, rheostat, connecting wires. Circuit diagram: oe | Procedure: 4) Calculate the value of the series resistance R for the given range. 2) Connect a resistance box in series with the galvanometer. 3) With calculated resistance R in the resistance box, adjust the rheostat to get full scale deflection in the galvanometer. 4) Note the readings of the voltmeter and the galvanometer. 5) Convert the galvanometer readings into volt. 6) Find the difference in readings between the voltmeter and galvanometer, if any. 7) Take 4 more readings.Calculations: 1) Resistance of the given galvanometer, G a. 2) Figure of metit, k A/div. 3) Number of divisions on the galvanometer scale, n = 4) Current for full scale deflection, |, = nk = 5) Range for conversion, V= volt. 6) Resistance in series with the galvanometer, 7) Least count of the galvanometer converted into voltmeter, L.€. volt. Observation table; Obs. Galvanometer reading } No. | a deflection P.D in volt (8) Vi=OxL.C 1 ae = poe 3 | 4 Sa 4 Result: As the difference in the actual and the measured value of the potential difference is very.small, the conversion is perfect.DETERMINATION OF THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX =aeaoCOu“ THE FOCAL LENGTH OF A CONVEX MIRROR Aim: To find focal length of the convex mirror using a convex lens. Apparatus: Convex lens, convex mirror, two lens holders, two optical needles, metre scale, chalk, thread. Ray diagram:Formula: f R u 5 where R is the radius of curvature of the convex mirror. Procedure: Ao - whe om Keep the convex lens and mirror separated by 20 cm. Place an index pin at O as shown in the diagram. . Now adjust the position of the pin at 0 till-an inverted image of the needle through lens Lis seen in the convex mirror M. When the inverted image is obtained, remove the parallax between the pin and the inverted image. Note the position of L, O, and M. Place another pin at about C without disturbing Land pin O and then adjust its position till you get its image coinciding with the pin atl. Note the readings by shifting the position of the convex lens with respect to the mirror. Observation table: Obs. No | Distance of the lens from | Image | R=LI-LM Mean Mirror Object u cm. R LM Lo cm. cm. cm. cm, Result: The focal length of the given convex mirror was found to be cm.Rerractive Invex OF A Lieurd Fox} -I DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A LIQUID USING A CONCAVE MIRROR im: To find the refractive index of a liquid using a concave Apparatus: Concave mirror, transparent liquid, optical needle, iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, half metre scale, thread. Formula: Refractive index of a given liquid is given by __real depth 4 Gpparent depthProcedure: 1) Find the rough focal length of the concave mirror 2) Keep the mirror at the base of the vertical stand with the reflecting surface upwards. 3) Fix an optical needle horizontally in the clamp of the stand, keeping its tip at twice the distance of the rough focal length. 4) Coincide the tip of the needle with the tip of its image and move it up and down to remove parallax between the tip of the needle and the tip of the image. 5) Measure the vertical distance CP. Mark it as R. 6) Take a few drops of the transparent liquid in a concave mirror, lower the needle and remove the parallax. 7) Measure the vertical distance C'P. Markit as R'. 8) Repeat the above steps 1 to 6 for different amounts of liquid. Observation table: Sr. | Real depth Apparent depth _R | No. R R| cae ee (cm) (cm) | ‘i | Calculations: + at mean jt asthe hs Result: The refractive index of the given liquid isPart IE DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A LIQUID USING A PLANE MIRROR AND A CONVEX LENS Aim: To find the refractive index of a liquid using a plane mirror and a convex lens Apparatus: Convex lens, plane mirror, transparent liquid, optical needle, iron stand with base and clamp arrangement, half meter scale, thread. Ray Diagram: Optical needle Glass convex lens Plane mirror. Procedure: A) For focal length of the convex lens. 1) Take the convex lens and find its rough focal length. 2) Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand. 3) Place the convex lens on the plane mirror. 4) Screw the optical needle tightly in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens at a distance equal to its rough focal length. 5) Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between the tip of the needle and the tip of the image.6) Measure the distance between the tip of the needle and the surface of the plane mirrar, 8) For focal length of the combination. 1) Take a few drops of the transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens over it with its same face above as before (a plano-concave liquid lens is formed between the plane mirror and the convex lens). 2) Repeat steps 4,5, and 6. 3) Note the readings. Observations: 1) Rough focal length of the convex lens is cm. Observation table: [Distance of the needle tip From lens From Mean Focal Arrangement) surface | plane |X=(x:#x2)/2| length 4 mirror cm x cm xem cm Without |. Sf liquid [2 | 3. | With 1 F liquid [2 3, Calculations: » Radius of curvature R=fi= cm, (Focal length of lens without liquid) ale Se pleFocal length with liquid is eetts f Result: The refractive index of the given liquid isFORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS OF A JUNCTION DI IDE Aim: To study the characteristics curve in forward bias p-n junction and to determine the static and dynamic resistance of the given semi-conductor diode. Apparatus: A p-n junction semiconductor diode, » theostat, voltmeter, milli ammeter, cell, plug key, connecting wires. wow eed) ae eT kw - + Formula: Static resistance of semiconductar diode R; Ty Dynamic resistance of semiconductor diode Ry = 22 Procedure: 1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram, 2. Note the least count of the voltmeter and milli ammeter. 3. Adjust the rheastat to apply a forward-bias voltage (V4) of 0.1 V for which the current remains zero. 4. Increase the forward- bias voltage up to 0.3V. Current remains zero (due to junction potential barrier). 5. Increase Vj tll milliammeter records a small current. Note the current, 6. Increase Vfin steps of 0.2V and note the corresponding current. Increase V; slowly first and then rapidly, 7. Note the current and take away the key when current increases suddenly, This represents the forward breakdown stage. 8. Plota graph of Vf v/s I.Observation: 1.LCof voltmeter = v 2. LC of milliammeter = mA Observation table: "ee voltage Vr | Obs. Forward-bias Forward current | " ™ (mA) 10 Result: 1. Static resistance of the given semiconductor diode, Rs = 2. Dynamic resistance of the given semiconductor diode, R,E,/E, by potentiometer Ain: To compare the emfs ofthe two given primary cells using a potentiometer Apparatus: Potentiometer, Leclanche cell, Daniel cell, battery eliminator, keys, galvanometer, rheostat, jockey etc. Aol Formuta ie Rly Circuit Diagram Procedure’ 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. 2. Close key K; and pass current through the circuit. 2, Make contacts at both ends of the wire with the jockey to get deflection on either side of the galvanometer. 4, Adjust the rheostat to ensure that the deflection is on either side of zero of the galvanometer. 5. Move the jockey along the wire to obtain the null point. 6, Measure the length, 7. Now close key K,and obtain the null point. 8, Measure length 1, 9, Take 3 more sets by adjusting the rheostat at different positions