Kindly follow the instructions strictly while writing

the practical file.

1 Do not use a pen on the blank page.
2. Draw circuit diagram, ray diagram or principal diagram as
shown in the literature on the blank page.
3. The diagram should be at the center of the blank page.
4. Each diagram must have a meaningful heading. Heading
should be in capital letters and underlined with scale.
5. Observation table skeleton or boundaries must be on the
ruled page and should be drawn with scale and pencil.
6. Allheadings should be written in black.
7. Observation table column headings should be in black.
Normal text should be in blue.
9. Follow the style of writing as forwarded toyou. For example
formulas at the center, headings and the entire content
should be left aligned.
10. Do not write the dates either in the index or inside anywhere.
11. Try to write the practical file in good handwriting.
12. In the LDR activity, in the last column of the observation
table, instead of decrease in resistance write increase in
resistance.
13. In experiment number 8, draw one observation table on one
page and the other on the next page.
14. Youare supposed to write the file in Physics LAB with the
help of your respective teacher and get it verified from Mr.
Ajay Pandey
15. It ismandatory totake the signature of Mr Santosh Yadav ina
practical long note Book and in the attendance register
available in the lab.
16. Allentries in the observation table should be centre aligned.
 The Shishukunj International
School
Class XII Physics Practical
Experiment-1

Aim: Tofind resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre

bridge.
Apparatus required: Metre bridge, Battery eliminator, galvanometer, resistance box,
jockey connecting wires.

Formula used: Unknown resistance

S= R(100-)

Circuit Diagram:
R

100 -,

-Metre Scale

K,

Observation table:

S.No Resistance from the Length (100-1) cm Unknown resistance

resistance box X:R(100-1) (ohm)
R (ohm) 1(cm)
1
2
3 . . . .

4
5

Result : The value of unknown resistance X= ohm

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their
ends by rubbing with sandpaper.
3. Move the jockey gently over the metre bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. Null point should be obtained between 40cm and 60cm.
Sources of error:
1. The instrument screwmay be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 Experiment-2
Aim: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances usinga metre bridge.
Apparatus: Ametre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a
jockey, two resistance wires or tWo resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sandpaper and
connecting wires.

Theory:
(1) The resistance of resistance wire or a coil is given by
r=R(100-I)

where R is the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap, and/ is the length of the meter
bridge wire from zero endsup to the balance point.
as
(ii) When two resistors r, and r, are connected in series, their combined resistance is given
follows:
R,=rË+rz
Circuit diagram:
(i) In series

(100-)
10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100
tRuuluuludualuuluuhunluulu uluntululuk
A C

Fig, Series combination of resistances.

(i) Resistances in series

Fig. Resistances in serieg.

Observations:

Resistance Length Length DC = Resistance Mean

Resistance S.No of
Resistarnce
coil Observations from the AD =/ (100 - ) cm
resistance cm (ohm)
box

r; only 1.
2.
3
 r, only 1.
2.
3.

r; and r; in 1 R,=
series 2
3

Calculations:
Calculation for verification of laws Experimental value of Rs =
Theoreticalvalue of R,=r;+ I;=
Difference (if any)
Result: Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R, are the same.
Hence, the law of resistances in series is verified.

Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends
by rubbing with sandpaper:.
3. Move the jockey gently over the metre bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. Nullpoint should be obtained between 40cm and 60cm.
5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance (otherwise
its resistance willincrease).
Sources of error:
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 Experiment-3

Aim: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of
merit.

Apparatus required: Battery,Galvanometer, two resistance boxes, key,connecting

wires.

Circuit diagram:

K
Resistance of galvanometer. Figure of merit.

Formula used :
Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method
RS
G= R-s
Here Ris the resistance connected in series with galvanometer and Sis the shunt resistance
k= (R+)0 E
Figure of merit
Here E is the emf of cell and is the deflection produced with resistance R
Observation table:
S.No Resistance Deflection in Shunt resistance Half Resistance of Figure of merit
E
R (ohm) galvanometer S (ohm) deflection galvanometer k=R+Ce A/div
(ohm)
RS
G=: R-S

4.

Result:
1.Resistance of given galvanometer ohm
2.Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A/div
S
Precaution:
1. Emf of battery should be constant.
2. Allthe connections should be neat, clean and tight.
3. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
4. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.
(otherwise for
5. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit
small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter can be damaged).

Sources of error:
1.The emf of the battery may not be constant.
2.The galvanometer division may not be of equal size.
 Experiment - 4
voltmeter
Aim: To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into a
of desired range and to verify the same.
Apparatus required: Galvanometer, voltmeter of range 0-3 V, Battery, rheostat, resistance box,
connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:

Corvered voltmeter
High rosistajnce

Battery

Fig, Circuit diagram for verification for voltmeter.

Calculations:
Resistance of the given galvanometer G= ohm
Figure of merit k= A/div
Number of divisions in galvanometer n=

Current for full scale deflection Ig = nk

Range of conversion 0-3 V
V
Resistance to be placed in series with galvanometer --G

Verification:
V V
Least count of converted galvanometer to voltmeter =

Observation table:
S.No Reading of converted Reading of converted Standard Difference
galvanometer into galvanometer into voltmeter
voltmeter voltmeter reading
Deflection Potential difference
in volts V;-V,
V,=0xL.C. (volt) V, ( volt) (volt)

1
2
3
 Result:
As the difference in actual and measured value of potential difference is very less, the conversion
is perfect.

Precautions:
1. The resistance box should be of high resistance
2. The voltmeter used for verification should preferably of the
same range as the range of
conversion.

Sources of error:
1. The emf of the battery may not be constant.
2. The galvanometer division may not be of equal size.
 Experiment - 5
Aim: To find focal length of convex by plotting a graph between u and v.

Apparatus: An optical bench with three upright (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with
lateral movement),a convex lens holder,two optical needles, (one thin, one thick).
Theory: The relation between u,v and f for aconvex lens is

From this equation, the focal length is,

f
Where f= focal length of convex lens
u=distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v=distance of image needle from optical centre of lens
Ray diagram:

2F F
2F
Cbjet Image
Noede Needle

Ag. Focal length of convex lena.

Observations:
Rough focal length of convex lens = Cm

Table for u andv

S.No. Position of Position Position Object Image f = utv
object of lens of image distance distance
needle 0(cm) needle u(cm) v(cm)
A(cm) C(cm)

2 eeeee ee.

5
 Calculations:
Calculations of focal length by graphical methods:
u-v graph:Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X-axis and v along Yaxis.
According to sign convention, in this case u is negative and v is positive. Plot the various points for
different sets of values of u and v from the observation table in the second quadrant. The graph
comes to be a rectangular hyperbola .Drawa line OA making an angle of 45°with either axis or
meeting the curve at point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X-axis and Y-axis respectively.
The values of u and v will be same for point A. So coordinates of point Amust be (2f, 2f) because
for convex lens u=2f, v= 2f
Hence AB = AC =2f
Or OB = 0C =2f
f=0B/2
Result:
The focal length of convex lens determined from
1.Focal length from f= cm
2. Focal length from u-v graph = cm

Precautions:
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping the eye at a distance at least 30 cm away
from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only a real, inverted image of it
is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.
Sources of error :1.
1.The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 Experinent - 6
Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-meter
scale, office pins,graph paper and a protractor.
Theory: The refractiveindex in) of the material of the prism is given by
sin4+Dn
2
n
sin
)
where,Dm angle of minimum deviation and Aangle of the prism.
Diagram:

Observations:
S.No Angle of incidencei Angle of deviation D

350
e ese ees

2 400

3 450

50°

5 55

6 600

Result:
1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D)
first decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm) and then starts increasing for further
increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm =
Precautions:
1. Theangle of incidence should lie between35°-60°.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pinsshould not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked torepresent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
 Sources of error:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
 Experiment-7

Aim: Todetermine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
Apparatus: Glass slab, a travelling microscope, Lycopodium powder:.
Theory: When aglass slab is placed on a horizontalsurface, and its bottom surface isviewed from
the top, due to refraction, it appears to be elevated. The apparent thickness of the slab is
determined from the distance between the apparent bottom and the top of the glass slab. The
refractive index with respect to the medium and air is given as:
realthickness of the slab
apparent thicknes8 of the slab

Diagram:

R,

(a) b) (c)

Real and apparent thickness

Observations and calculations:

Table for microscope reading

S.No Reading on vertical scale when Real Apparent Refractive
microscope is focused on thickness thickness index
(Rg - R) (R3 - R) R,-R,
n=
Crossmark Lycopodium Cm Cm R-R,
Cross mark with slab powder
without slab R, cm Rg cm
R, cm

3
 Result:

The ratio isconstant and gives the refractive index of the glass slab.
Precautions:
1. The parallax in a microscope should be removed properly.
2. To avoid backlash error, the microscope should be moved upward.
Sources of Error:
1. The scale used in the microscope might not be calibrated properly.
2. The lycopodium powder layer on the glass slab might be thick.
 Experiment - 8
Aim: To draw the I-V characteristic curve of ap-n /unction in forward bias and reverse bias.

Apparatus :Ap-n junction (semiconductor)diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high

resistance rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mAammeter, one
0-100 uA ammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sandpaper
Theory: Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to the
positive terminal of a battery and n-section is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
then the junction is said to be forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, the forward current
increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7 Vfor Sidiode (0.2 Vfor Ge), the
current increasessuddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the forward current
increases rapidly, iscalled cut in voltage or threshold voltage. Reverse bias characteristics. When
the p -section of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the high voltage battery and
n-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the same battery, then the junction
is said to be reversed biased.

Diagram:

Potential O+ O+
0+ 0+
Divider

Flgp-n junction diode forward biased.

Polential
Divider

50V

ig p-n junction diode-reverse biaaed.

Observations:

For forward-bias
Range of voltmeter =.....V
Least count of voltmeter = ...V
Zero error of voltmeter = ...V
Range of milli-ammeter = ....mA
Least count of milli-ammeter = ....mA
Zero error of milli-ammeter =.....mA
Table for forward bias voltage and forward current
S.No Forward bias voltage VF Forward current
(volt) IF
(mA)
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24
 For reverse-bias
Range of voltmeter V
Least countof voltmeter
Zero error ofvoltmeter =.....V
Range of micro-ammeter =...4A
Least count of microammeter
Zero error of micro-ammeter E.....

Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current

S.No Reverse bias voltage V, Reverse current
(volt)
(MA)
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

Calculations :
For forward-bias
Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage V, (column 2) and forward current I, (column 3)
taking V,along X-axis and I, along Y-axis.
This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve, a junction diode.
For reverse-bias
Plot agraph between reverse-bias voltage V, (column2) and reverse current , (column 3) taking
V, along X-axis and I, along Y-axis.
This graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode.
 Result:
Junction resistance for forward-bias ohms
Junction resistance for reverse-bias ohms.

Precautions:

1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. Key should be used in the circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
4. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error:
The junction diode supplied may be faulty
 Activity-1
Aim: To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of
such items.

Apparatus: Multimeter.
Material: Above mixed collection of items.

Theory :
For identification, appearance and working of each item will have to be considered.
1. Adiode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct
when reverse biased. It does not emit light while conducting. Hence, it does not glow.
2. ALED(light emitting diode) is also atwo terminal device. It also conducts when forward
biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. Hence,
it glows.
3. Atransistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B) and
collector (C).
4. An 1C(integrated circuit) is amulti-terminal device in the form of achip. [See figure (UM 3482 1C
Tone Generator)]
5. Aresistor is a two terminal device. It conducts when either forward biased or reverse biased. (In
fact there is no forward or reverse bias for a resistor), It conducts even when operated with A.C.
voltage.
6. Acapacitor is also a two terminal device. It does not conduct when either forward biased or
reverse biased. When a capacitor is connected to a D.C. source, then the multimeter shows full
scale current initially but it decays to zero quickly. It is because initially a capacitor draws a
charge.
The components to be identified are shown in figure
1234
1000 uf
Wire 6V
047 uF
Paper Electrolyic
-Rings
(a) Carbon reslstor Mica (b) Capacilors

pnp or npn

ED

(d) Transistor
( Diodes

1234567 8
(e) Integraled circuits
Mg. Some of the commonly available integrated circuits (1CS).

Procedure:
1. If the item has four or more terminals and has the form of a chip, it is an IC (integrated
circuit).
2. If the item has three terminals, it is a transistor.
3.Jfthe item has two terminals, it may be a diode, a LED, a resistor or a capacitor.
To differentiate, proceed as ahead.
4. Put the selector on the resistance Rof the multimeter for checking the continuity. The probe
metal ends are inserted in a terminal marked on the multimeter as common and P (or + ve).
 If such that the black one is in common and the red probe is in P (or +ve), On touching the
two ends of the device to the two other metal ends of probes.
1. Ifa pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when reversed and
there is no light emission, the item is a diode.
2. If a pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and does not move when re-versed and
there is light emission, the item is a LED.
3. Ifa pointer moves when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the item
is a resistor.
Ifapointer does not move when voltage is applied in one way and also when reversed, the
item is a capacitor.
No. of Nunsber of legs Name of device No. of Possible current Name of device
Obe. Obs. ow
1. More than 3 4 Uaidirectional Diode
emit no light
Three Transistor 5 Unidirectional LED
emit light
3. Two Capacitor, Diode, Both direction
6 Resistor
LED or resistor (steady)
7 Iaitial high but Capacitor
decays to zero
 Activity -2
Aim: To study the effect of intensity of light (by varying distance of the source) on an LDR.
Apparatus: Light source, light dependent resistors (L.D.R.s) of different variety, a multimeter (or meter
bridge), a source of intenselight (a lamp bulb with battery eliminator) anda convex lens.
Light Dependent Resistor: The light dependent resistance are the devices for detecting and measuring
electromagnetic waves (light etc.). Its working is based upon the principle of variation of the
photoconductivity when radiation is incident upon it and absorbed by it.
Alight dependent resistor is prepared from cadmium sulphide. Its resistance depends upon the
intensity and duration of light incident on it. Agood quality LDR shows a resistance variation
from 1 MQ in complete darkness to about 10 Nin full daylight. The intensity of light decreases
inversely with increasing the square of distance.
Procedure:
1. Turn the selector switch and set it on R for the measurement of resistance, in the
multimeter.
2. Plug the metallic ends of black probe in the terminal marked common in the multimeter and
that of red in the terminal marked as P (or +). Short the other metallic ends and adjust the 'R
adjusting' to get full scale deflection reading at zero ohm in the meter.
3. Touch the metallic probes to the two metal ends of the L.D.R. [Fig. (a)] and read the value of
resistance when (a) the source is kept at a distance of 2 cm, fixing the source of light in a
stand and keeping the L.D.R. vertically below it.
() Moving the source to 4 cm distance from the L.D.R. and
(ii) Moving the source to 6,8 and 10cm from L.D.R. and repeating observation
three more times.

Observations:
6VD.C. sÔurce)

Electske bulb
(8 VO.05 anp)
Ught
Light
ww LOR.
L.DR.

To probes$ ot st
muttimeter set at R To Tumeter
set a! ohm
(a Symboi of L D.R (b) L.D.R. in seres with a 6 Vbatery and exposed
to light from butb inckdent normalty
Table for Light Exposure Time and Resistance
Serial No. Distance ofsorce Resistance ofL.D.R Decreas ia Resistance
ofObs from L.D.R (cm) R(ahm) Rfohm
(2)
1

2 4

4
10

Conclusion:
When the distance between light source and L.D.R. increases the resistance of L.D.R. decreases.
Note: Same activity can bedone by varying the exposure time in steps for the same source
 of light, same LDR and for the same distance.
Precautions:
1. No stray light should fall on the L.D.R. It is better to work in a dark room.
2. Connect L.D.R. carefully to the voltage source.
 Activity -3
Aim: To observe diffraction of light due to a thin slit.

Apparatus: Two razor blades, adhesive tapes, a screen, a source of monochromatic light (laser pencil)
black paper and a glass plate.

Theory: Diffraction is a phenomenon of bending of light around the corners or edges of a fine opening
or aperture. Diffraction takes place when the order of wavelength is comparable or small to the size of
slit or aperture. The diffraction effect is more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the obstacle is of
the order of wavelength of the waves. The diffraction pattern arises due to interference of light waves
from different symmetrical points of the same wavefront. The diffraction pattern due to asingle slit
consists of acentral bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity on
both sides.

For diffraction, d sin 8 = nà

Here d= size of aperture or slit
= angle of diffraction
n=order of diffiraction
A= wavelength of light.
Procedure:
1. Fix the black paper on the glass plate by using adhesive.
2. Place two razor blades so that their sharp edges are parallel and extremely close to each
other to form a narrow slit in between.

Glass plate

Black paper

Athín slit made by using two razor blades, black paper and a giass plate.
3. Cut the smallslit in between the sharp edges of blades and place at a suitable distance
from a wallor screen of a dark room.
4. Throw a beam of light on the slit by the laser pencil.
5. A diffraction pattern of alternate bright and dark bands is seen on the wall.

4 Intensity

1,21 L/82 LN21

 Conclusion:
When light waves are incident on a slit or aperture then it bends away (spread) at the comers
of the slit showing the phenomena of diffraction of light.
Precautions:
1. Air gaps should not be left between glass plates and black paper.
2. The razor blades should be placed extremely close as possible.
3. Diffraction patterns should be seen on a wall of a dark room.
4. A point source of monochromatic light like a laser torch should be used.
 Activity -4
Aim :To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches,a fuse
and a power SOurce.

Material Required: Three bulbs (6 V, 1W) each, fuse of 0.6 A, main switch, a power supply
(battery eliminator), three (on/off) switches, flexible connecting ire with red and black
plastic covering,a fuse wire.Main electric board with a two-pin socket and main switch
Theory :Electricity supplied to us for domestic purposes is 220 V A.C. and 50 Hz. The
household circuit, all appliances are connected in "parallel" with mains. The switches are
connected in series with each appliance in live wire. 5 A switch is required for normal
appliances like bulbs, fluorescent tube fans etc. 15 Asockets and switches are required for
heavy load appliances ' like, refrigerator, air conditioner, geyser, hot plates etc. All appliances
must have three wires called live, neutral and the earth. Total power consumption 'P' at a
time

P=P1 + P2 + P3 +..........

where P1, P2, P3 are the powers drawn by appliances.

To protect the appliances from damage when unduly high currents are drawn fuse of little
higher rating, 10 to 20% higher than the current normally drawn by all appliances,. For further
safety, a suitable value MAINS FUSE like rating 32 A is connected in series wth supply
Source.

Diagram:

AC. ammeter ()
M.S. F
Power 10
80urce Souca of upply
0to 10 V IFue (0 t90.75 A)
()
(a) Circuit dingram, (6) Actual layout.
Procedure

1. Connect the bulbs B1, B2 and B3 in series with switches S1, S2 and S3 respectively
and connect each set of B-S in parallel with each other.
2. Connect the main supply to a step-down transformer (battery eliminator) to get
required voltage from 0 to 10 V(0, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 V).
3. Connect the mains fuse M.S. in series with the power supply (battery eliminator).
4. Connect an A.C. ammeter in series with the Bulb-switch set.
5. Connect one end of the power supply to one end of the Bulb-switch set.
6. Check the circuit one again to ensure that the household circuit is complete.
7. Gradually increase the current to 0.75 A, the fuse must bum off at about 0.6 A.