Umeaza Basha 4/7/2023
822 Science
The Circulatory System
Purpose: What are similarities and differences between the circulatory system in the fetal
pig and the circulatory system in the human body?
What is the circulatory system?
The heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the
circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and organs
throughout the body. Another part of the circulatory system is to remove waste from cells and
organs so the body can dispose of it.
The heart pumps blood to the body through a network of arteries and veins (blood
vessels). The circulatory system can also be defined as the cardiovascular system. Cardio means
heart, and vascular refers to blood vessels.
The Heart
The heart is the main organ of the cardiovascular system, a network of blood vessels that
pumps blood throughout the body. It also works with other body systems to control the heart rate
and blood pressure.
What is the heart?
The heart is a fist-sized organ that pumps blood throughout the body. It's the primary
organ of the circulatory system. The heart contains four main sections (chambers) made of
muscle and powered by electrical impulses. The brain and nervous system direct theheart’s
function.
What is the heart’s function?
The heart’s main function is to move blood throughout the body. The heart also:
- Controls the rhythm and speed of the heart rate.
- Maintains the blood pressure.
How does the heart work with other organs?
- The heart works with other body systems to control the heart rate and other body
functions.
The primary systems are:
- Nervous system: the nervous system helps control the heart rate. It sends signals
that tell the heart to beat slower during rest and faster during stress.
- Endocrine system: the endocrine system sends out hormones. These hormones tell
the blood vessels to constrict or relax, which affects the blood pressure. Hormones
from the thyroid gland can also tell the heart to beat faster or slower.
Where is the heart located?
The heart is located in the front of the chest. It sits slightly behind and to the left of the
sternum (breastbone). The ribcage protects the heart.
What side is the heart on?
The heart is slightly on the left side of the body. It sits between the right and left lungs.
The left lung is slightly smaller to make room for the heart in the left chest.
How big is the heart?
Everyone’s heart is a slightly different size. Generally, adult hearts are about the same
size as two clenched fists, and children’s hearts are about the same size as one clenched fist.
How much does the heart weigh?
On average, an adult’s heart weighs about 10 ounces. The heart may weigh a little more
or a little less, depending on the body size and sex.
What are the parts of the heart’s anatomy?
The parts of the heart are like the parts of a house. The heart has:
- Walls.
- Chambers (rooms).
- Valves (doors).
- Blood vessels (plumbing).
- Electrical conduction system (electricity).
- Heart walls
The heart walls are the muscles that contract (squeeze) and relax to send blood
throughout the body. A layer of muscular tissue called the septum divides the heart walls into the
left and right sides.
The heart walls have three layers:
- Endocardium: Inner layer.
- Myocardium: Muscular middle layer.
- Epicardium: Protective outer layer.
The epicardium is one layer of the pericardium. The pericardium is a protective sac that
covers the entire heart. It produces fluid to lubricate the heart and keep it from rubbing against
other organs.
Heart chambers
The heart is divided into four chambers. There are two chambers on the top (atrium,
plural atria) and two on the bottom (ventricles), one on each side of the heart.
Right atrium: Two large veins deliver oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium. The superior vena
cava carries blood from the upper body. The inferior vena cava brings blood from the lower
body. Then the right atrium pumps the blood to the right ventricle.
Right ventricle: The lower right chamber pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery. The lungs reload blood with oxygen.
Left atrium: After the lungs fill blood with oxygen, the pulmonary veins carry the blood to the
left atrium. This upper chamber pumps the blood to the left ventricle.
Left ventricle: The left ventricle is slightly larger than the right. It pumps oxygen-rich blood to
the rest of the body.
Heart valves
The heart valves are like doors between the heart chambers. They open and close to allow
blood to flow through.
The atrioventricular (AV) valves open between the upper and lower heart chambers. They
include:
- Tricuspid valve: Door between the right atrium and right ventricle.
- Mitral valve: Door between the left atrium and left ventricle.
- Semilunar (SL) valves open when blood flows out of the ventricles. They include:
- Aortic valve: Opens when blood flows out of the left ventricle to the aorta (artery that
carries oxygen-rich blood to the body).
- Pulmonary valve: Opens when blood flows from the right ventricle to the pulmonary
arteries (the only arteries that carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs).
Blood vessels
The heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels:
- Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the body’s tissues. The exception is
the pulmonary arteries, which go to the lungs.
- Veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
- Capillaries are small blood vessels where the body exchanges oxygen-rich and
oxygen-poor blood.
The heart receives nutrients through a network of coronary arteries. These arteries run along the
heart’s surface. They serve the heart itself.
- Coronary artery: Divides into two branches (the circumflex artery and the left anterior
descending artery).
- Circumflex artery: Supplies blood to the left atrium and the side and back of the left
ventricle.
- Left anterior descending artery (LAD): Supplies blood to the front and bottom of the
left ventricle and the front of the septum.
- Right coronary artery (RCA): Supplies blood to the right atrium, right ventricle, bottom
portion of the left ventricle and back of the septum.
Electrical conduction system
The heart’s conduction system is like the electrical wiring of a house. It controls the rhythm and
pace of the heartbeat. It includes:
- Sinoatrial (SA) node: Sends the signals that make the heart beat.
- Atrioventricular (AV) node: Carries electrical signals from the heart’s upper chambers
to its lower ones.
The heart also has a network of electrical bundles and fibers. This network includes:
Left bundle branch: Sends electric impulses to the left ventricle.
Right bundle branch: Sends electric impulses to the right ventricle.
Bundle of His: Sends impulses from the AV node to the Purkinje fibers.
Purkinje fibers: Make the heart ventricles contract and pump out blood.
The circulatory system (cardiovascular system) pumps blood from the heart to the lungs
to get oxygen. The heart then sends oxygenated blood through arteries to the rest of the body.
The veins carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart to start the circulation process over. The
circulatory system is critical to healthy organs, muscles and tissues.
What does the circulatory system do?
The circulatory system’s function is to move blood throughout the body therefore
providing blood to all the body's tissues so they can function. This blood circulation keeps
organs, muscles and tissues healthy and working to keep the body alive. The circulatory system
also helps the body get rid of waste products. This waste includes:
- Carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing).
- Other chemical byproducts from the organs.
- Waste from things eaten and drunk.
How does the circulatory system work?
The circulatory system functions with the help of blood vessels that include arteries,
veins and capillaries. These blood vessels work with the heart and lungs to continuously circulate
blood through the body. Here’s how:
The heart’s bottom right pumping chamber (right ventricle) sends blood that’s low in
oxygen (oxygen-poor blood) to the lungs. Blood travels through the pulmonary trunk (the main
pulmonary artery). Blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs. Pulmonary veins carry the
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart’s left atrium (upper heart chamber). The left atrium
sends the oxygenated blood into the left ventricle (lower chamber). This muscular part of the
heart pumps blood out to the body through the arteries. As it moves through the body and organs,
blood collects and drops off nutrients, hormones and waste products. The veins carry
deoxygenated blood and carbon dioxide back to the heart, which sends the blood to the lungs.
The lungs get rid of the carbon dioxide when exhaling.
What are the circulatory system parts?
The parts of the circulatory system are the:
- Heart, a muscular organ that pumps blood throughout the body.
- Blood vessels, which include the arteries, veins and capillaries.
- Blood, made up of red and white blood cells, plasma and platelets.
What are the circulatory system circuits?
The circulatory system has three circuits. Blood circulates through the heart and through
these circuits in a continuous pattern:
- The pulmonary circuit: This circuit carries blood without oxygen from the heart to the
lungs. The pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the heart.
- The systemic circuit: In this circuit, blood with oxygen, nutrients and hormones travels
from the heart to the rest of the body. In the veins, the blood picks up waste products as the body
uses up the oxygen, nutrients and hormones.
- The coronary circuit: Coronary refers to the heart’s arteries. This circuit provides the
heart muscle with oxygenated blood. The coronary circuit then returns oxygen-poor blood to the
heart’s right upper chamber (atrium) to send to the lungs for oxygen.
What are the types of blood vessels?
There are three main types of blood vessels:
Arteries: Arteries are thin, muscular tubes that carry oxygenated blood away from the
heart and to every part of the body. The aorta is the body’s largest artery. It starts at the heart and
travels up the chest (ascending aorta) and then down into the stomach (descending aorta). The
coronary arteries branch off the aorta, which then branch into smaller arteries (arterioles) as they
get farther from the heart.
Veins: These blood vessels return oxygen-depleted blood to the heart. Veins start small
(venules) and get larger as they approach the heart. Two central veins deliver blood to the heart.
The superior vena cava carries blood from the upper body (head and arms) to the heart. The
inferior vena cava brings blood up from the lower body (stomach, pelvis and legs) to the heart.
Veins in the legs have valves to keep blood from flowing backward.
Capillaries: These blood vessels connect very small arteries (arterioles) and veins
(venules). Capillaries have thin walls that allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste
products to pass into and out of cells.
What are the circulatory
system organs?
The heart is the only circulatory system
organ. Blood goes from the heart to the lungs to
get oxygen. The lungs are part of the respiratory
system. The heart then pumps oxygenated blood
through arteries to the rest of the body.
Comparison to the Fetal Pig
The ratio of heart weight to body weight in 20- to 30-kg pigs, which are used frequently
in cardiovascular studies, is identical (5 g/kg) to that of adult humans.23 One should bear in
mind that this ratio in such young animals is markedly higher than that of adult pigs (2.5 to 2.9
g/kg).
The heart of the fetal pig are rotated counterclockwise compared with the human heart.
As a result, the left ventricle and left atrium faces caudally, whereas the right atrium and
ventricle are cranially situated. Due to the quadruped stance, the heart appears to be overhanging
the thoracic cavity by its major vessels; therefore, venal drainage has a gravitational component.
The orifices of the caval veins of pigs and other animals form an angle as they enter the right
atrium, in contrast to the human caval veins, which are aligned along the same axis. Regarding
terminology, the superior and inferior caval veins of humans are called the cranial and caudal
caval veins in the majority of mammals used in biomedical research. An important difference is
the presence of the left azygous vein in pigs, which drains directly into the coronary sinus; the
human heart lacks this anatomic arrangement. In the swine heart, the right auricle has a narrow
tubular appearance, compared with the triangular shape of that in humans. The number of
orifices for the left atrium varies among mammals. In pigs the left atrium receives oxygenated
blood from 2 pulmonary veins, and in humans from 4 or 5.25
Conditions and Disorders
- Aneurysms:
Aneurysms occur when an artery wall weakens and enlarges. The weak spot can bulge as
blood moves through the artery. The weak spot may tear, causing a life-threatening rupture.
Aneurysms can affect any artery, but aortic aneurysms, abdominal aortic aneurysms and brain
aneurysms are the most common.
What is an aneurysm?
An aneurysm is a weak or expanded part of an artery, like a bulge in a balloon. The
arteries are large blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the
body. If an area in an artery wall weakens, the force of blood pumping through can result in a
bulge or aneurysm.
Aneurysms usually aren’t painful. The presence of it inside the body can only be noticed
once it ruptures or bursts. If it does, it can be very dangerous or even fatal.
What are the different types of aneurysms?
An aneurysm can form in any of the arteries in the body. Aneurysms can occur in the
heart, abdomen, brain or legs. The location determines the type of aneurysm.
Aortic aneurysms are by far the most common. They form in the aorta, the body’s largest
artery. The aorta carries blood out of the heart. Aneurysms that develop in arteries other than the
aorta are called peripheral aneurysms.
Types of aneurysms include:
Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA): Abdominal aortic aneurysms may form where the
aorta carries blood into the abdomen (belly).
Cerebral aneurysms: Also called brain aneurysms, these aneurysms affect an artery in
the brain. A saccular (or berry) aneurysm is the most common type of cerebral aneurysm. It
forms as a sac of blood attached to an artery. It looks like a round berry attached to the artery.
Thoracic aortic aneurysm: These aneurysms are less common than AAAs. Thoracic
aortic aneurysms form in the upper part of the aorta, in the chest.
Carotid aneurysm: Carotid artery aneurysms form in the carotid arteries. These blood
vessels bring blood to the brain, neck and face. Carotid aneurysms are rare.
Popliteal aneurysm: These develop in the artery that runs behind the knees.
Mesenteric artery aneurysm: This type of aneurysm forms in the artery that brings
blood to the intestine.
Splenic artery aneurysm: These aneurysms develop in an artery in the spleen.
How common are aneurysms?
Unruptured brain aneurysms affect 2% to 5% of healthy people, and about 25% of them
have multiple aneurysms. Most brain aneurysms develop in adulthood, but they can also occur in
children with mean age of detection around 50 years. The vast majority of brain aneurysms don’t
rupture.
Aortic aneurysms become more prevalent with age. Abdominal aortic aneurysms are four
to six times more common in those assigned male at birth (AMAB) than those assigned female at
birth (AFAB). They affect only about 1% of people AMAB aged 55 to 64. But the incidence
increases by 2% to 4% with every decade.
Who is at risk for an aneurysm?
Different types of aneurysms affect different groups. Brain aneurysms affect people
AFAB more than those AMAB. Aortic aneurysms more often affect people AMAB.
Abdominal aortic aneurysms occur most often in people who are:
- Assigned male at birth.
- Over the age of 60.
- Smokers.
- White, although they affect people of any race.
What causes an aneurysm?
In some cases, people are born with aneurysms. They can also develop at any point
during the life. Although the cause of an aneurysm is often unknown, some possible causes
include:
- Atherosclerosis (narrowing of the arteries).
- Family history of aneurysms.
- High blood pressure.
- Injury to the aorta.
What are the symptoms of an aneurysm?
In many cases, people don’t know they have an aneurysm. If an aneurysm ruptures
(bursts), it’s a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.. Symptoms of a ruptured
aneurysm come on suddenly. Some symptoms include:
- Lightheaded.
- Rapid heartbeat.
- Sudden, severe pain in the head, chest, abdomen or back.
- Sudden loss of consciousness following a severe headache.
- When an aneurysm causes symptoms, the signs depend on its location. Signs of shock,
such as a drop in blood pressure might be noticed, feeling clammy and “out of it,” and
having a pounding heart. Other symptoms of an aneurysm can include:
- Confusion or dizziness.
- Difficulty swallowing.
- Fatigue.
- Headache.
- Nausea or vomiting.
- Pain in the abdomen, chest or back.
- Pulsating abdominal mass or swelling in the neck.
- Rapid heart rate.
- Vision changes.
What are the complications of an aneurysm?
If an aneurysm ruptures, it causes internal bleeding. Depending on the location of the
aneurysm, a rupture can be very dangerous or life-threatening. An aneurysm in the neck can
cause a blood clot that travels to the brain. If the clot cuts off blood flow to the brain, it causes a
stroke. When a brain aneurysm ruptures, it causes a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Some people call
this type of stroke a brain bleed. Typically people have what they call the worst headache of their
life and then develop other symptoms like limb weakness, headache and trouble speaking.
High blood pressure: the arteries work hard to circulate blood throughout the body.
When the pressure (force of blood against the blood vessel walls) gets too high, the develop high
blood pressure. When the arteries become less elastic (stretchy), less blood and oxygen reaches
organs like the heart. High blood pressure increases risk for cardiovascular disease, heart attacks
and strokes.
Plaque deposits: High cholesterol and diabetes can lead to fat and other substances
collecting in the blood. These substances form deposits called plaques on artery walls. This
condition is atherosclerosis, or narrowed or hardened arteries. Atherosclerosis increases the risk
of blood clots and strokes, coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease (and other artery
diseases), heart attacks and kidney disease.
- Arrhythmias
What is arrhythmia?
An arrhythmia (also called dysrhythmia) is an abnormal heartbeat. Arrhythmias can start
in different parts of the heart and they can be too fast, too slow or just irregular.
Normally, the heart beats in an organized, coordinated way. Issues with various parts of
the heart — or even the blood theheart pumps — can affect the heart’s normal rhythm. Having a
normal heart rhythm matters because the heart supplies the whole body with nutrients and
oxygen through the blood it pumps.
How serious is a heart arrhythmia?
Some types of arrhythmia are harmless and don’t require treatment. Others can put the at
risk for cardiac arrest. Many are in between these two extremes. A healthcare provider can tell
the which type of arrhythmia the have and what kind of treatment the need, if any.
What are the types of arrhythmia?
Healthcare providers describe arrhythmias by where in the heart they start.
Supraventricular arrhythmias: These begin in the atria (the heart’s upper chambers).
“Supraventricular” means above the ventricles or lower chambers of the heart.
Ventricular arrhythmias: These begin in the heart’s ventricles or lower chambers.
Bradyarrhythmias and junctional rhythms: These can happen because of issues in the heart’s
conduction system, such as the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node or His-Purkinje
network.
How common is arrhythmia?
An estimated 1.5% to 5% of people have arrhythmias. However, some people don’t have
symptoms, making it difficult to estimate how many people actually have arrhythmias. In the
U.S., atrial fibrillation is the most common type of arrhythmia.
What are the warning signs of arrhythmia?
Heart arrhythmia symptoms may include:
- Heart palpitations.
- Dizziness or lightheadedness.
- Fainting episodes.
- Shortness of breath.
- Chest discomfort.
- Weakness or fatigue.
- A cardiac arrhythmia may be “silent” and not cause any symptoms.
What causes arrhythmia?
Arrhythmia causes include:
- Coronary artery disease.
- Irritable tissue in the heart (due to genetic or acquired causes).
- High blood pressure.
- Changes in the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy).
- Valve disorders.
- Electrolyte imbalances in the blood.
- Injury from a heart attack.
- The healing process after heart surgery.
What is the main cause of arrhythmia?
Most arrhythmias happen because of an issue with the heart’s arteries, valves or muscles.
What are the risk factors for arrhythmia?
Risk factors for arrhythmia include:
- Using tobacco products.
- Drinking alcohol.
- Consuming drinks and foods that have caffeine.
- Taking stimulants like cold medicines or herbal supplements.
- Having high blood pressure.
- Having a BMI (body mass index) higher than 30.
- Having high blood sugar.
- Having sleep apnea.
What are the complications of arrhythmia?
Without treatment, arrhythmias can lead to complications such as:
- Weakening of the heart muscle (cardiomyopathy).
- Cardiac arrest.
- Stroke.
- High cholesterol
What is high cholesterol?
High cholesterol is a condition in which there are too many lipids (fats) in the
blood. It’s also called hyperlipidemia or hypercholesterolemia.
The body needs just the right amount of lipids to function. If there are have too
many lipids, the body can’t use them all. The extra lipids start to build up in the arteries.
They combine with other substances in the blood to form plaque (fatty deposits).
This plaque might not cause any problems for years, but over time, the plaque
silently gets bigger and bigger within the arteries. This is why untreated high cholesterol
is dangerous. Those extra lipids in the blood help make the plaque bigger without even
knowing it. The only way to know if a person had a high cholesterol is through a blood
test.
A blood test, called a lipid panel, tells how many lipids are circulating in the
blood. What is considered high cholesterol depends on the age, sex and history of heart
disease.
Good cholesterol vs. bad cholesterol
There are several types of lipids. The main ones probably heard about are “good
cholesterol” and “bad cholesterol.”
Good cholesterol is called high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Think of the “H” as
meaning “helpful.” the HDLs carry cholesterol to the liver. The liver keeps the
cholesterol levels balanced. It makes enough cholesterol to support the body’s needs and
gets rid of the rest. There must be enough HDLs to carry cholesterol to the liver. If the
HDLs are too low, there will have too much cholesterol circulating in the blood.
Bad cholesterol is called low-density lipoprotein (LDL). This is the culprit that
makes plaque form in the arteries. Having too many LDLs can lead to heart disease over
time.
Causes of high cholesterol
Lifestyle factors and genetics both play a role in causing high cholesterol.
Lifestyle factors include:
- Smoking and tobacco use: Smoking lowers the “good cholesterol” (HDL) and
raises the “bad cholesterol” (LDL).
- Being under a lot of stress: Stress triggers hormonal changes that cause the body
to produce cholesterol.
- Drinking alcohol: Too much alcohol in the body can raise the total cholesterol.
- Not moving around enough: Physical activity like aerobic exercise improves
cholesterol numbers.
- Diet: Some foods may raise or lower the cholesterol.
Symptoms of high cholesterol
- High cholesterol doesn’t cause any symptoms for most people. A person could be
a marathon runner and have high cholesterol. They won’t start to feel any
symptoms until the high cholesterol causes other problems in the body.
How does the high cholesterol affect the body?
Over time, high cholesterol leads to plaque buildup inside the blood vessels. This
plaque buildup is called atherosclerosis. People with atherosclerosis face a higher risk of
many different medical conditions. That’s because the blood vessels do important work
all throughout the body. So when there’s a problem in one of the blood vessels, there’s a
ripple effect.
Think of the blood vessels as a complex network of pipes that keep blood flowing
through the body. Plaque is like the gunk that clogs the pipes at home and slows down the
shower drain. Plaque sticks to the inner walls of the blood vessels and limits how much
blood can flow through.
When a person has high cholesterol, there is plaque forming inside the blood
vessels. The longer to go without treatment, the bigger the plaque gets. As the plaque gets
bigger, the blood vessels become narrowed or blocked. Like a partly clogged drain, the
blood vessels may still work for a long time. But they won’t work as efficiently as they
should. High cholesterol raises the risk of other medical conditions depending on which
blood vessels are clogged.
Sources:
1.) https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21775-circulatory-system
2.) https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/21704-heart
3.) https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22769-aneurysm
4.) https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/16749-arrhythmia
5.) https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/11918-cholesterol-high-cholesterol-d
isease
6.) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
