Integral and Its Appli ations

3
3.1 Indefinite Integrals
Definition of indefinite integral

Suppose that (d /d x)F (x) = f (x). Then we say F (x) is an indefinite integral (or an anti-derivative)
of f (x) with respect to x. The entire set of functions F (x) + C , where C is a constant, is the infi-
nite integral of f (x) with respect to x:

d
Z
F (x) = f (x) ⇔ f (x) d x = F (x) +C .
dx

The procedure of finding integrals is called integration.

For example,
d 2
Z
(x + 1) = 2x ⇔ (2x) d x = (x 2 + 1) +C .
dx

Basic formulas of indefinite integral

Theorem 3.1.1 (Term by Term Integration). Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be functions and α, β be
constants. Z Z Z
[α f (x) + βg (x)] d x = α f (x) d x + β g (x) d x.

Theorem 3.1.2 (Formulas of integration).

x r +1 1
Z Z
(a) xr d x = +C (r 6= −1); (b) d x = ln |x| +C ;
r + 1 x
ax
Z Z
(c) ax d x = +C (a > 0, a 6= 1); (d) e x d x = e x +C ;
Z ln a Z
(e) sin x d x = − cos x +C ; (f) cos x d x = sin x +C ;
Z Z
(g) sec2 x d x = tan x +C ; (h) csc2 x d x = − cot x +C ;

56
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 57
Z Z
(i) sec x tan x d x = sec x +C ; (j) csc x cot x d x = − csc x +C ;
1 1
Z Z
(k) p d x = sin−1 x +C ; (l) 2
d x = tan−1 x +C ;
2 1+x
Z 1−x
1
(m) p d x = sec−1 x +C .
2
x x −1

3.2 Techniques of Integration

3.2.1 Substitution Rule

The 1st substitution rule

Theorem 3.2.1 (1st Substitution Rule). Let u = u(x) be a function in x. Then

Zµ ¶
du
Z
f (u) d x = f (u) d u.
dx

Z
Example 3.2.2. Suppose that f (x) d x = F (x) +C .

(a) Let c 6= 0 be a constant and u = cx. Then d u/d x = c. So

Z Z
f (cx) c d x = f (u) d u = F (u) +C .

Equivalently,
1
Z
f (cx) d x = F (cx) +C .
c
(b) Let a be any constant and u = x + a. Then d u/d x = 1. So
Z Z
f (x + a) d x = f (u) d u = F (u) +C = F (x + a) +C .

Z
Example 3.2.3. Find x 3 cos(x 4 + 2) d x.

Solution. Let u = x 4 + 2. Then d u/d x = 4x 3 . Hence,

1 1 1 1
Z Z Z
3 4 4 3
x cos(x + 2) d x = cos(x + 2) 4x d x = cos u d u = sin u +C = sin(x 4 + 2) +C .
4 4 4 4
Z Z
Example 3.2.4. Find (i) tan x d x and (ii) cot x d x.

Solution. (i) Note that tan x = sin x/ cos x. Let u = cos x. Then d u/d x = − sin x. Hence,
1 1
Z Z Z
tan x d x = − (− sin x) d x = − d u = − ln |u| +C = − ln |cos x| +C .
cos x u
Z
(ii) cot x d x = ln |sin x| +C , which is left as an exercise.
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 58
Z Z
Example 3.2.5. Find (i) sec x d x and csc x d x.

Solution. Let u = sec x + tan x. Then d u/d x = sec x tan x + sec2 x = sec x (sec x + tan x). So
sec x(sec x + tan x) 1
Z Z Z
sec x d x = dx = d u = ln |u| +C = ln |sec x + tan x| +C .
sec x + tan x u
Z
(ii) csc x d x = − ln |csc x + cot x| +C , which is left as an exercise.

The 2nd substitution rule

Theorem 3.2.6 (2nd Substitution Rule). Let x = x(t ) be a function. Then

Zµ ¶
dx
Z
f (x) d x = f (x(t )) dt.
dt

1
Z
Example 3.2.7. Find p d x.
x (x + 1)
p
Solution. Let t = x, i.e., x = t 2 . Then d x/d t = 2t . So
1 1 1 p
Z Z Z
p dx = 2
2t d t = 2 2
d t = 2 tan−1 t +C = 2 tan−1 ( x) +C .
x (x + 1) t (t + 1) t +1

In particular, for quadratic forms with square roots, we can use trigonometric substitution:
p p
(i) a 2 − x 2 . Use x = a sin t . Then a 2 − x 2 = a cos t and d x/d t = a cos t .
p p
(ii) x 2 − a 2 . Use x = a sec t . Then x 2 − a 2 = a tan t and d x/d t = a sec t tan t .
p p
(iii) a 2 + x 2 or a 2 + x 2 . Use x = a tan t . Then a 2 + x 2 = a sec t and d x/d t = a sec2 t .
p
In the general form ax 2 + bx + c, we shall first complete the square
¶2
4ac − b 2
·µ ¸
2 b
ax + bx + c = a x+ + ,
2a 4a 2

then use the proper trigonometric substitution.

1
Z
Example 3.2.8. Find p d x.
16 − 9x 2
p
Solution. 16 − 9x 2 = 42 − (3x)2 . Use 3x = 4 sin t . Then 16 − 9x 2 = 4 cos t and x = (4/3) sin t ; so
t = sin−1 (3x/4) and d x/d t = (4/3) cos t .
µ ¶
1 1 4 1 1 1 −1 3x
Z Z Z
p dx = cos t d t = 1 d t = t +C = sin +C .
16 − 9x 2 4 cos t 3 3 3 3 4
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 59
Zp
Example 3.2.9. Find 1 − x 2 d x.
p
Solution. Let x = sin t . Then 1 − x 2 = cos t and d x/d t = cos t . So
1 1 1
Zp Z Z
2
1 − x d x = cos t cos t d t = (1 + cos 2t ) d t = t + sin 2t +C .
2 2 4

Here we use the double-angle formula cos 2t = 2 cos2 t − 1. Now t = sin−1 x and
p
sin 2t = 2 sin t cos t = 2x 1 − x 2 .

We conclude that
1 1 p
Zp
1 − x 2 d x = sin−1 x + x 1 − x 2 +C .
2 2

1
Z
Example 3.2.10. Find p d x.
x2 x2 − 1
p
Solution. Let x = sec t . Then x 2 − 1 = tan t and d x/d t = sec t tan t .
1 1
Z Z Z
p dx = sec t tan t d t = cos t d t = sin t +C .
x2 x2 − 1 sec2 t tan t
p
In the right-angled triangle with an acute angle t such that sec t = x, sin t = x 2 − 1/x. Then
p
1 x2 − 1
Z
p d x = sin t +C = +C .
x2 x2 − 1 x

x p
x2 − 1

t
1

3.2.2 Integration of Rational Functions

Partial fraction form

Let y = P (x)/Q(x) be a rational function, where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomials. Its partial frac-
tion form is the expression as a sum of a polynomial and several fractions with simpler denom-
inators.
A rational function y = P (x)/Q(x) is said to be proper if deg P (x) < degQ(x). Its partial frac-
tion form is the sum of simple fractions of the following forms:

(i) If ax + b is a factor of Q(x), it contributes a term A/(ax + b).

(ii) If (ax + b)2 is a factor of Q(x), it contributes A/(ax + b) + B/(ax + b)2 .
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 60

(iii) If (ax + b)3 is a factor of Q(x), it contributes A/(ax + b) + B/(ax + b)2 +C /(ax + b)3 .
(iv) If ax 2 + bx + c is an irreducible factor of Q(x), i.e., b 2 < 4ac, it contributes (Ax + B)/(ax 2 +
bx + c).

For example,
P (x) A B
(i) = + , where deg P (x) < 2.
(ax + b)(cx + d ) ax + b cx + d
P (x) A B C
(ii) = + + , where deg P (x) < 3.
(ax + b)(cx + d )(ex + f ) ax + b cx + d ex + f
P (x) A B C
(iii) = + + , where deg P (x) < 3.
(ax + b)(cx + d )2 ax + b cx + d (cx + d )2
P (x) Ax + B C
(iv) 2
= 2
+ , where deg P (x) < 3 and b 2 < 4ac.
(ax + bx + c)(d x + e) ax + bx + c d x + e
Note that for any case, the number of unknowns equals degQ(x).
The following is the procedure of finding partial fraction form of a rational function y =
P (x)/Q(x).

(i) If deg P (x) ≥ degQ(x), then use long division P (x) ÷ Q(x) to convert it as the sum of a
polynomial and a proper fraction R(x)/Q(x) with deg R(x) < degQ(x).
(ii) Factorize the denominator Q(x) completely into linear factors (ax + b) and irreducible
quadratic factors (ax 2 + bx + c with b 2 < 4ac).
(iii) Write down the partial fraction form with unknowns A, B,C , . . . and sum the partial frac-
tions by taking a common denominator.
(iv) Compare the coefficients of the numerator to get a linear system in n variables and n equa-
tions, where n = degQ(x), and solve the system.

Example 3.2.11. Find the partial fraction form of (3x + 5)/(x 2 + 3x + 2).

Solution. (i) Factorize the denominator x 2 + 3x + 2 = (x + 1)(x + 2).

(ii) The partial fraction form is A/(x + 1) + B/(x + 2) for some constants A, B. Then

3x + 5 A(x + 2) + B(x + 1) (A + B)x + (2A + B)

= = .
(x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2) (x + 1)(x + 2)
(iii) Compare coefficients of the numerators: 3 = A + B and 5 = 2A + B. Then solve the system:

A = 2 and B = 1.

Therefore, the partial fraction form of (3x + 5)/(x 2 + 3x + 2) is 2/(x + 1) + 1/(x + 2).

Example 3.2.12. Find the partial fraction form of (5x 2 − 6x + 31)/[(x − 1)(x 2 + 9)].
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 61

Solution. (i) The partial fraction form is A/(x−1)+(B x+C )/(x 2+9) for some constants A, B,C .

5x 2 − 6x + 31 A(x 2 + 9) + (B x +C )(x − 1) (A + B)x 2 + (C − B)x + (9A −C )

= = .
(x − 1)(x 2 + 9) (x − 1)(x 2 + 9) (x − 1)(x 2 + 9)

(ii) Compare coefficients of the numerators: A + B = 5, C − B = −6, 9A −C = 31. Solve to get

A = 3, B = 2, C = −4.

Therefore, the partial fraction form is 3/(x − 1) + (2x − 4)/(x 2 + 9).

Example 3.2.13. Find the partial fraction form of (x 3 − x 2 + 5)/(x 2 − 1).

Solution. (i) Evaluate (x 3 − x 2 + 5) ÷ (x 2 − 1) by long division:

x −1
2 3 2
x + 0x − 1 ) x − x + 0x +5
x 3 + 0x 2 − x
− x2 + x +5
− x2 + 0x +1
x +4

Then (x 3 − x 2 + 5)/(x 2 − 1) = (x − 1) + (x + 4)/(x 2 − 1).

(ii) Factorize the denominator x 2 − 1 = (x − 1)(x + 1).
(iii) The partial fraction form of (x + 4)/(x 2 − 1) is A/(x − 1) + B/(x + 1). Then

x +4 A(x + 1) + B(x − 1) (A + B)x + (A − B)

= = .
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x2 − 1

(iv) Compare the coefficients of the numerators: A + B = 1, A − B = 4. Then solve to get

A = 5/2 and B = −3/2.

Hence, the partial fraction form of (x 3 − x 2 +5)/(x 2 −1) is (x −1)+5/[2(x −1)]−3/[2(x +1)].

Integration of rational functions

Let y = P (x)/Q(x) be a rational function, where P (x),Q(x) are polynomials. In order to integrate
P (x)/Q(x),

(i) Find the partial fraction form of P (x)/Q(x).

(ii) Integrate the partial fraction form term by term.
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 62

Use the partial fraction form in Examples 3.2.6:

3x + 5 1 1
Z Z Z
2
dx = 2 dx + d x = 2 ln|x + 1| + ln |x + 2| +C .
x + 3x + 2 x +1 x +2
Use the partial fraction form in Example 3.2.7:

5x 2 − 6x + 31 1 x 1
Z Z Z Z
2
dx = 3 dx +2 2
dx −4 2
d x.
(x − 1)(x + 9) x −1 x +9 x +9

Let u = x 2 + 9. Then d u/d x = 2x. So

x 1
Z Z
2 2
dx = d u = ln |u| +C = ln(x 2 + 9) +C .
x +9 u
Let x = 3 tan t . Then d x/d t = 3 sec2 t and t = tan−1 (x/3).
1 1 4 4 4 −1 x
Z Z Z ³ ´
2
−4 d x = −4 3 sec t d t = − 1 d t = − t +C = − tan +C .
x2 + 9 9 tan2 t + 9 3 3 3 3
Therefore,
5x 2 − 6x + 31 4 −1 x
Z ³ ´
2
d x = 3 ln |x − 1| + ln(x + 9) − tan +C .
(x − 1)(x 2 + 9) 3 3
Use the partial fraction form in Example 3.2.8:
Z 3
x − x2 + 5 5 1 3 1
Z Z Z
2
d x = (x − 1) d x + dx − dx
x −1 2 x −1 2 x +1
1 5 3
= x 2 − x + ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1| +C .
2 2 2

3.2.3 Integration by Parts

Theorem 3.2.14 (Integration by Parts). Let u = u(x) and v = v (x) be functions in x. Then
Zµ ¶ Zµ ¶
dv du
u d x = uv − v d x.
dx dx

We shall choose u and v properly so that v · (d u/d x) is simpler than u · (d v /d x).

Z
Example 3.2.15. Find xe x d x.

Solution. Let u = e x and d v /d x = x. Then d u/d x = e x and v = x 2 /2. Then

v · (d u/d x) = x 2 e x /2,

which is more complicated than xe x . So the choice of u, v is improper.

Instead, let u = x and d v /d x = e x . Then d u/d x = 1 and v = e x . Then
Z Z
xe d x = xe − e x d x = xe x − e x +C .
x x
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 63
Z
Example 3.2.16. Find x ln x d x.

Solution. Let u = ln x and d v /d x = x. Then d u/d x = 1/x and v = x 2 /2. Then

1 2 x 1 1
Z Z
x ln x d x = x ln x − d x = x 2 ln x − x 2 +C .
2 2 2 4

Z
Example 3.2.17. Find x tan−1 x d x.

Solution. Let u = tan−1 x and d v /d x = x. Then d u/d x = 1/(1 + x 2 ) and v = x 2 /2. Then
x2
Zµ ¶
1 2 1 1 2 1 1
Z Z
−1 −1 −1
x tan x d x = x tan x − d x = x tan x − 1− dx
2 2 1 + x2 2 2 1 + x2
1 1 1
= x 2 tan−1 x − x + tan−1 x +C .
2 2 2
Z
Example 3.2.18. Find e x sin x d x.

Solution. Let u = e x and d v /d x = sin x. Then d u/d x = e x and v = − cos x. So

Z Z
e x sin x d x = −e x cos x + e x cos x d x.

Let u = sin x and d v /d x = e x . Then d u/d x = cos x and v = e x . So

Z Z
e sin x d x = e sin x − e x cos x d x.
x x

Add these two identities to get

Z
2 e x sin x d x = e x sin x − e x cos x +C .

Equivalently,
1
Z
e x sin x d x = e x (sin x − cos x) +C .
2

(ln x)2
Z
Example 3.2.19. Find d x.
x2
Solution. Let u = (ln x)2 and d v /d x = 1/x 2 . Then d u/d x = 2 ln x/x and v = −1/x. So
(ln x)2 (ln x)2 ln x
Z Z
2
dx = − +2 d x.
x x x2
Let u = ln x and d v /d x = 1/x 2 . Then d u/d x = 1/x and v = −1/x. So
ln x ln x 1 ln x 1
Z Z
2
dx = − + 2
dx = − − +C .
x x x x x
Combine the results to get
(ln x)2 (ln x)2 (ln x)2 2 ln x 2
µ ¶
ln x 1
Z
d x = − + 2 − − +C = − − − +C .
x2 x x x x x x
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 64

3.3 Definite Integral

3.3.1 Geometric Meaning of Definite Integral

Let y = f (x) be a function such that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in the interval [a, b]. Then the area of the
region bounded between the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis from x = a to x = b is the definite
Zb
integral of y = f (x) from a to b, denoted by f (x) d x.
a
y

y = f (x)

O a b x

Example 3.3.1. Let a > 0. Then the area of the semicircle of radius a is given by
Za p
1
a 2 − x 2 d x = πa 2 .
−a 2
y
p
y= a2 − x2

−a O a x

Let y = f (x) be a function on [a, b] which may take positive and negative values. Let
◦ A + = the area of the region bounded below y = f (x) and above the x-axis; and
◦ A − = the area of the region bounded above y = f (x) and below the x-axis.
Then the definite integral of y = f (x) from a to b is given by
Zb
f (x) d x = A + − A − ,
a
which is called the net area of the region between y = f (x) and the x-axis.
y
y = f (x)
A+
a
O b x
−
A
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 65

Example 3.3.2.
Z2π Z2π
sin x d x = 0 and cos x d x = 0.
0 0

y y
y = sin x y = cos x

2π
O π x O 1 3 2π x
2π 2π

3.3.2 Formulas for Definite Integrals

Theorem 3.3.3 (Term by Term Integration). Let y = f (x) and y = g (x) be functions defined on
[a, b] and α, β be constants.
Zb Zb Zb
[α f (x) + βg (x)] d x = α f (x) d x + β g (x) d x.
a a a

Theorem 3.3.4. Let y = f (x) be a function defined on [a, b]. Then for any a ≤ c ≤ b,
Zc Zb Zb
f (x) d x + f (x) d x = f (x) d x.
a c a

y
y = f (x)

O a c b x

Z
′
Theorem 3.3.5 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). If F (x) = f (x), i.e., f (x) d x = F (x) + C ,
then
Zb ¯x=b
f (x) d x = F (b) − F (a) = F (x)¯ .
¯
a x=a

1
Z
Example 3.3.6. Since d x = ln |x| +C ,
x
Ze
1 ¯x=e
d x = ln |x|¯ = ln |e| − ln |1| = 1 − 0 = 1.
¯
1 x x=1
Z
Example 3.3.7. In Example 3.2.4(i), we have seen that tan x d x = − ln|cos x| +C . Then

1p
Zπ/4 ¯x=π/4
tan x d x = − ln |cos x|¯ = − (ln |cos(π/4)| − ln |cos 0|) = 2.
¯
0 x=0 2
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 66

3.4 Applications of Integral

3.4.1 Area Problem

Area between curve and axis

If f (x) ≥ 0 for all x in [a, b], then the area of the region bounded below the curve y = f (x) and
above by the x-axis, from x = a to x = b, is given by
Zb
A= f (x) d x.
a

y
y = f (x)

O a b x

Example 3.4.1. The area of the region between y = cos x and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = π/2 is
Zπ/2 ¯x=π/2
cos x d x = sin x ¯ = sin(π/2) − sin 0 = 1 − 0 = 1.
¯
0 x=0

y
1

y = cos x

O π/2 x

Area between two curves

Suppose f (x) ≥ g (x) for all x in [a, b]. Then the area of the region bounded between y = f (x)
and y = g (x) from x = a to x = b is given by
Zb
A= [ f (x) − g (x)] d x.
a
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 67

y = f (x)
f (x) − g (x)

y = g (x)

O a b x

If the region is cut by a vertical line at x, then f (x) − g (x) is the length of the line segment.
Roughly speaking, area is the integral of length.

Example 3.4.2. Find the area of the ellipse x 2 + 4y 2 = 1.

p
Solution. 4y 2 = 1 − x 2 implies that y = ± 1 − x 2 /2 and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
y
1
p
y= 2 1 − x2

−1 O 1 x

p
y = − 21 1 − x 2

Hence, by Example 3.3.1 with a = 1, the area of the ellipse is given by

Z1 h³ p Z1 p
1 2
´ ³ p
1 2
´i π
A= 2 1− x − −2 1− x dx = 1 − x2 d x = .
−1 −1 2

Example 3.4.3. Find the area of the region enclosed by y = 9 − x 2 and y = x 2 − 3x.

Solution. First find the intersection points of the two curves:

9 − x 2 = x 2 − 3x ⇒ 2x 2 − 3x − 9 = 0 ⇒ x = −3/2 or x = 3.
y

y = x 2 − 3x y = 9 − x2
b

O 3 x
− 32
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 68

For −3/2 ≤ x ≤ 3, the curve y = 9 − x 2 is above the curve y = x 2 − 3x. So the area of the region is
Z3 Z3 · ¸x=3
£ 2 2
¤ 2 2 3 3 2 243
A= (9 − x ) − (x − 3x) d x = (−2x + 3x + 9) d x = − x + x + 9x = .
−3/2 −3/2 3 2 x=−3/2 8

Example 3.4.4. Find the area of the region enclosed by y = x(x + 1)(x − 2) and the x-axis.
Solution. y = x(x + 1)(x − 2) intersects the x-axis at three points x = −1, x = 0 and x = 2.
y

−1 A1 O 2
x

A2

y = x(x + 1)(x − 2)

Let A 1 be the area of the region enclosed by the curve and the x-axis from x = −1 to x = 0. Then
Z0 Z0 · ¸x=0
3 2 1 4 1 3 2 5
A1 = [x(x + 1)(x − 2) − 0] d x = (x − x − 2x) d x = x − x − x = .
−1 −1 4 3 x=−1 12
Let A 2 be the area of the region between the curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 2. Then
Z2 Z2 · ¸x=2
3 2 1 4 1 3 2 8
A2 = [0 − x(x + 1)(x − 2)] d x = (−x + x + 2x) d x = − x + x + x = .
0 0 4 3 x=0 3
Therefore, the total area of the region bounded by the curve and the x-axis is

A = A 1 + A 2 = 5/12 + 8/3 = 37/12.

Suppose that f (y) ≥ g (y) for all a ≤ y ≤ b. Then the area of the region bounded between the
curves x = f (y) and x = g (y) from y = a to y = b is given by
Zb
A= [ f (y) − g (y)] d y.
a
y

b
f (y) − g (y)
x = g (y) x = f (y)

O x
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 69

Note that if the region is cut using a horizontal line at y, then f (y)− g (y) is the length of the line
segment. Again, area is the integral of length.

Example 3.4.5. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola x = 6y − y 2 and the line
y = x.

Solution. First find the intersection points:

6y − y 2 = y ⇒ y 2 = 5y ⇒ y = 0 or y = 5.
y
x = 6y − y 2
y =x
5 b

(6y − y 2 ) − y

O x

Then the area of the region enclosed by x = 6y − y 2 and y = x is

5 2 1 3 y=5 125
Z5 Z5 · ¸
2 2
£ ¤
A= (6y − y ) − y d y = (5y − y ) d y = y − y = .
0 0 2 3 y=0 6

3.4.2 Volume Problem

Suppose a solid is placed along the x-axis from x = a to x = b.

a
O

x
b

Let A(x) be the area of the cross-section perpendicular to the x-axis at the point x. Then the
volume of the solid is Z b
V= A(x) d x.
a
Roughly speaking, volume is the integral of area.
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 70

Volume of revolution

Suppose a solid is obtained by rotating the region between the curve y = f (x) and the x-axis
from x = a to x = b about the x-axis. Then the area of the cross-section at x is A(x) = π[ f (x)]2 ,
and the volume of the solid is Z b
V= π[ f (x)]2 d x.
a

p
Example 3.4.6. Consider the region bounded by y = x and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 1.
Suppose the region is rotated completely about the x-axis.

y y
1
p
y= x O

p x
x

O 1 x

Then the volume of the generated solid is

1 2 ¯¯x=1 1
Z1 Z1
p 2
¯
V= π( x) d x = πx d x = πx ¯ = π.
0 0 2 x=0 2

Example 3.4.7. Prove that the volume of the right-circular cone with base radius r and height
h is given by
1
V = πr 2 h.
3
Proof. Place a right-angle triangle with base h and height r in the x y-plane as follows. The
hypotenuse has slope r /h. So its equation is y = (r /h)x, 0 ≤ x ≤ h.
y y
r r
y= x y= x
h r h r

O x O x
h

Then the right-circular cone is formed by rotating the triangle completely about the x-axis, and
its volume is given by

πr 2 h 2 πr 2 1 3 x=h πr 2 1 3 1 2
Z h ³ ´2 · ¸
r
Z
V= π x dx = 2 x dx = 2 x = 2 · h = πr h.
0 h h 0 h 3 x=0 h 3 3
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 71

Example 3.4.8. Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the region enclosed by y = sin x
(0 ≤ x ≤ 2π) and y = 0 about the x-axis.
y

O π 2π x

O 2π x

Solution. Although y = sin x ≤ 0 for π ≤ x ≤ 2π, the volume formula is still valid. Using double-
angle formula
Z2π Z2π · ¸x=2π
2 π π 1
V= π(sin x) d x = (1 − cos 2x) d x = x − sin 2x = π2 .
0 0 2 2 2 x=0

Volume difference

Suppose f (x) ≥ g (x) ≥ 0 for all x in [a, b]. Let the region bounded between y = f (x) and y = g (x)
from x = a and x = b be rotated completed about the x-axis.
y y
y = f (x)

y = g (x)
O a b x O x

Then the volume of the resulting solid is

Zb
π [ f (x)]2 − [g (x)]2 d x.
© ª
V=
a

Example 3.4.9. Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the circle x 2 + (y − 2)2 = 1 com-
pletely about the x-axis.
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 72

y p y
y = 2 + 1 − x2

b
2

p
y = 2 − 1 − x2

−1 O 1 x x

Solution. The circle x 2 + (y − 2)2 = 1 has radius 1 and centred at (0, 2). So −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. Moreover,
p
x 2 + (y − 2)2 = 1 ⇒ y = 2 ± 1 − x 2 .
p p
So the circle is bounded above by y = 2 + 1 − x 2 and bounded below by y = 2 − 1 − x 2 . There-
fore, the volume of the generated solid is
Z1 ·³ ´2 ¸ Z1 p
p ´2 ³ p π
V= π 2+ 1−x 2 − 2− 1−x 2 d x = 8π 1 − x 2 d x = 8π · = 4π2 .
−1 −1 2

Rotation about the horizontal line y = k

Suppose that the region bounded between y = f (x) and the horizontal line y = k from x = a to
x = b (a < b) is rotated completed about y = k. Then the volume of the resulting solid is
Zb
£ ¤2
π f (x) − k d x.
a

Example 3.4.10. Let the region bounded between y = e x and y = 1 from x = 0 to x = ln 2 be

rotated completely about y = 1.
y y

y = ex

1 1

O ln 2 x O ln 2 x
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 73

Then the volume of the generated solid is

Zln 2 Zln 2 · ¸x=ln 2 µ ¶
x 2 2x 1 1
π(e − 1) d x = π (e − 2e + 1) d x = π e 2x − 2e x + x
x
= π ln 2 − .
0 0 2 x=0 2

Example 3.4.11. Let the region bounded by y = sin x and y = 1 from x = 0 to x = 2π be rotated
completely about y = 1.
y y

1 1

O 2π x O 2π x

y = sin x

Then the volume of the generated solid is

Z2π Z2π
2
V= π(sin x − 1) d x = π (sin2 x + 1 − 2 sin x) d x
0 0
Z2π · ¸ · ¸x=2π
1 3 1
=π (1 − cos 2x) + 1 − 2 sin x d x = π x − sin 2x + 2 cos x = 3π.
0 2 2 4 x=0

Rotation about the y-axis

Suppose a region bounded between curves x = f (y) and the y-axis from y = a to y = b (a < b)
is rotated completely about the y-axis. Then the volume of the generated solid is
Zb
V= π[ f (y)]2 d y.
a

Example 3.4.12. The region enclosed by y = x 2 and y = 1 is rotated completely about the y-axis.
y y

1 1

p
y = x2 x= y

O x O x
−1 1 −1 1
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 74

The resulting solid is also obtained by rotating the region in the 1st quadrant about the y-axis.
y

O x
−1 1

p
Let x ≥ 0. Then y = x 2 implies x = y. Therefore, the volume of the generated solid is
Z1 Z1
p π 2 ¯¯ y=1 π
V= π( y)2 d y = πy 2 d y = y ¯ = .
0 0 2 y=0 2

3.5 Ordinary Differential Equations

An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation containing a function and its deriva-
tives.

3.5.1 Separable Differential Equations

dy
A separable differential equation is of the form = f (x)g (y), for which the solution is
dx

1
Z Z
dy = f (x) d x.
g (y)

dy x
Example 3.5.1. Solve the differential equation = (x, y > 0) such that y = 2 when x = 1.
dx y
Solution. f (x) = x and g (y) = 1/y. Hence,

1 1 1
Z Z
d y = x d x ⇒ y 2 = x 2 +C ⇒ y 2 − x 2 = 2C ,
1/y 2 2

where C is a constant to be determined. At x = 1, y = 2. Substitute into the above equation:

2C = 22 − 12 = 3.

Therefore, the solution to the equation is y 2 − x 2 = 3.

CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 75

dy y
Example 3.5.2. Solve the differential equation = (x, y > 0) such that y = 2 when x = 1.
dx x
Proof. f (x) = 1/x and g (y) = y. Hence,
1 1
Z Z
dy = d x ⇒ ln y = ln x +C ,
y x

where C is a constant to be determined. At x = 1, y = 2. Substitute into the above equation:

ln 2 = ln 1 +C ⇒ C = ln 2.

Therefore, the solution is ln y = ln x + ln 2 = ln(2x); or equivalently, y = 2x.

dy
Example 3.5.3. Solve the differential equation x = 1 + y 2 (x > 0).
dx
d y 1 + y2
Solution. Rewrite the equation in the standard form = . Then f (x) = 1/x and g (y) =
dx x
1 + y 2 . Hence,
1 1
Z Z
dy = d x ⇒ tan−1 y = ln x +C ⇒ y = tan(ln x +C ),
1 + y2 x
where C is a constant to be determined.

3.5.2 Method of Substitution

Certain differential equations can be reduced to a separable equation by means of an appropri-
ate substitution.

Example 3.5.4. (i) Show that the substitution z = x + y reduces the differential equation
dy 6−x − y
=
dx x+y
dz 6
to a separable equation = .
dx z
(ii) Find the general solution of the differential equation in (i) in terms of x and y.
dy dz
Solution. (i) Differentiate y = z − x with respect to x to get = − 1. Then the equation
dx dx
becomes
dz 6−z 6 dz 6
−1 = = −1 ⇒ = .
dx z z dx z
(ii) The above differential equation is separable in x and z, where f (x) = 1 and g (z) = 6/z. Then
z 1 1
Z Z
d z = 1 d x ⇒ z 2 = x +C ⇒ (x + y)2 = x +C .
6 12 12
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 76

Example 3.5.5. Use the substitution z = x −3 y to convert the differential equation

dy
x = x 2 + 3y (x > 0), y = 4 when x = 1,
dx
into a separable equation in x and z. Hence, find y in terms of x.

Solution. Differentiate y = x 3 z with respect to x to get

dy dz
= 3x 2 z + x 3 .
dx dx
Substitute into the given differential equation to get

dz dz 1
3x 3 z + x 4 = x 2 + 3x 3 z ⇒ = 2.
dx dx x
1 1
Z
Hence, z = 2
d x = − +C , where C is a constant to be determined; equivalently,
x x
µ ¶
1
y = x z = x − +C = −x 2 +C x 3 .
3 3
x

At x = 1, y = 4. Then 4 = −12 +C · 13 = −1 +C ⇒ C = 5. Therefore, y = −x 2 + 5x 3 .

3.5.3 Applications of Differential Equations

Example 3.5.6. A right circular cylindrical tank with radius 5 m and height 16 m is being drained
p
at 0.5 h m3 /min. How long does it take to empty the tank?
dV p
Solution. Let V be the volume of water if the water is h m depth. It is given that = −0.5 h.
dt
dV dh
Since V = πr 2 h = 25πh, = 25π . We obtain an ordinary differential equation:
dt dt
dh p
25π = −0.5 h, h(0) = 16.
dt
Separate the variables and integrate:
Z
1
Z
1 p t
p dh = − dt ⇒ 2 h = − +C ,
h 50π 50π
p
where C is a constant to be determined. At t = 0, h = 16. Then 2 · 16 = 0 +C ⇒ C = 8.
p
Therefore, 2 h = −t /(50π) + 8; or equivalently,
µ ¶2
t
h = 4− .
100π

When the tank is empty, h = 0, we have t = 400π ≈ 1256 min.

CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 77

Example 3.5.7 (Newton’s Law of Cooling). The rate of heat loss is proportional to the difference
of temperature. Let T = T (t ) be the temperature of an object at time t , and TS be the surround-
ing temperature. Then for a constant r > 0,

dT
= −r (T − TS ).
dt
Suppose that a boiled egg at 98◦ C is put in water of 18◦ C. After 5 min, the temperature of the
egg becomes 38◦C. Assume that the water is not warmed appreciably. How much longer will it
take for the egg to reach 20◦ C?

Solution. Let T (t ) be the temperature of the egg at time t . Then T (0) = 98◦ C, T (5) = 38◦ C. The
surrounding temperature is TS = 18◦ C. Note that T > 18. Separate the variables and integrate:

1
Z Z
d T = (−r ) d t ⇒ ln(T − 18) = −r t +C ,
T − 18
where C is a constant to be determined.
At t = 0, T = 98. Then ln(98 − 18) = −r · 0 +C ⇒ C = ln 80.
At t = 5, T = 38. Then ln(38 − 18) = −r · 5 + ln 80 ⇒ r = (ln 80 − ln 20)/5 = (ln 4)/5.
It is required to find the time t at which the temperature T = 20. Let T = 20. Then ln(20−18) =
−[(ln 4)/5]t + ln 80. So t = 5 ln40/ ln4 ≈ 13 min.

3.6 Exercises
Indefinite and Definite Integrals

3.1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.

Zµ ¶
2
Z
¡ 2
tan x − sec2 2x d x;
¢
(a) x + 2 d x; (b)
x
2
2 sin x + 1 3
Z Z
(c) 2
d x; (d) 2
d x;
Z cos x Z 2x − 8x + 58
1
(e) p d x; (f) (3 cos x − sin x)2 d x.
6x − x 2 − 5
3.2. Find the equations of the following curves.

(a) The gradient of the function 3x 2 − 4x, and the curve passes through the point (1, 0).
(b) d 2 y/d x 2 = 6x − 4/x 2 (x > 0), and the tangent line at x = 1 is y = 10x − 4.
d ¡ 2 ¢
3.3. (i) Evaluate tan x + 2 ln|cos x| .
dx
Zπ/4
(ii) Use the result in (i) to evaluate tan3 x d x.
0

3.4. Using appropriate substitutions, evaluate the following integrals.

CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 78

Zp
cos x 4 − e −x
Z
(a) d x; (b) d x;
(2 sin x + 5)3
p ex
ln 2x 1
Z Z
(c) d x; (d) p p d x;
2x x + x x
2 + tan x 1
Z Z
(e) d x; (f) d x;
cos2 x x 2 e 2/x
tan−1 x 2
Z Z
(g) d x; (h) d x.
1 + x2
p
x 4 ln x − (ln x)2
3.5. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
8 sin2 4x
Z Z
(a) cos x cos 9x d x; (b) d x;
1 + cos 8x
7 + 4x − 2x 2 1
Z Z
(c) d x; (d) d x.
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1) (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
3.6. Using integration by parts, evaluate the following definite integrals.
Zπ Z1
³x ´ 2x − 1
(a) x cos d x; (b) d x;
0 2 0 e 2x
Ze Zπ/4
3
(c) x ln x d x; (d) x sec2 x d x;
1 0
Zπ/2 Ze 2
(e) e 3x cos 2x d x; (f) x ln(x 4 ) d x;
0 e
Z1/4 Zπ/8
(g) sin−1 2x d x; (h) x tan2 2x d x;
Z0π Z0π/3
(i) x sin x cos x d x; (j) x sin2 3x d x.
0 0

Area and volume problems

3.7. Calculate the area of the region bounded by the following curves/lines.

(a) y = 4x(1 − x) and y = 0.

(b) y = 1 − x and y 2 = 1 + x.
x
(c) y = 2 sin x + 1 (0 ≤ x ≤ π), the y-axis and the line y = .
π
p
(d) y = x, the x-axis and the line y = 6 − x.

3.8. A curve C has equation y = 5 − e x .

(i) Find the coordinates of the points at which C intersects the axes.
(ii) Find the equation of the asymptote of C .
(iii) Sketch the curve C .
(iv) Find the equation of the tangent line to C at the point where C intersects the y-axis.
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 79

(v) The region R is bounded by the curve C , the tangent line in (iv) and the x-axis. Find the
volume of the solid generated by rotating R completely about the x-axis.
3.9. (i) On a single x y-coordinate system, sketch the graphs of y = x 2 and y = 2 − x 2 .
(ii) Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating the region bounded between the two
curves in (i) completely about the x-axis.
3.10. (i) Sketch the graph of y = x + 4/x for x > 0.
(ii) Find the area of the region S bounded by the curve in (i) and the line y = 5.
(iii) Find the volume of the solid when S is rotated completely about the line y = 5.
3.11. The region R is bounded by y = tan2 x (0 ≤ x < π/2), the y-axis and y = 3.
(i) Find the area of the region R.
Z3
p
(ii) Using the result in (i) or otherwise, evaluate tan−1 y d y.
0
(iii) Show that (d /d x)(tan3 x − 3 tan x + 3x) = 3 tan x.
4

(iv) Find the volume of the solid formed by rotating R completely about the x-axis.

Ordinary differential equations

3.12. Solve the following ordinary differential equations.

dy
(a) (1 − x) = 6 (x < 1), y =5 when x = 0.
dx
dy
(b) x + (x 2 + 1) = 0 (x > 0), y = 1/2 when x = 1.
dx
dy 3
(c) = y−1 (y > 0), y =1 when x = 0.
d x ye
dy
(d) e y+1 − e 1−2y = 0, y =0 when x = 1.
dx
3.13. Solve the following differential equation by substitution z = 2x + y:
d y 8x + 4y + 1
+ = 0, y = 1 when x = 1.
d x 4x + 2y + 1

Hints to Exercises
1 2 1
3.1. (a) x 2 − +C ; (b) tan x − tan 2x − x +C , Hint: tan2 x = sec2 x − 1;
2 x 2 µ ¶
3 −1 x − 2
(c) 3 tan x − 2x +C ; (d) tan +C , Hint: 2x 2 − 8x + 58 = 2[(x − 2)2 + 52 ];
µ ¶ 10 5
−1 x − 3
(e) sin +C , Hint: 6x − x 2 − 5 = 22 − (x − 3)2 .
2
3
(f) 2 sin 2x + cos 2x + 5x +C , Hint: Expand the square and use the double-angle formulas
2
sin x cos x = (sin 2x)/2, sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x)/2, cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)/2.
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 80

3.2. (a) y = x 3 −2x 2 +1; (b) y = x 3 +4 ln x +3x +2, Hint: Use the tangent line to find the values
of y and d y/d x at x = 1, then show that d y/d x = 3x 2 + 4/x + 3.
Z
3
3.3. (i) 2 tan x, Hint: (d /d x) ln |x| = 1/x; (ii) (1 − ln 2)/2, Hint: f (x) d x = F (x) + C ⇔
Z
(d /d x)F (x) = f (x), tan3 x d x = (tan2 x)/2 + ln |cos x| +C .

1 2
3.4. (a) − +C , Hint: u = 2 sin x + 5; (b) (4 − e −x )3/2 +C , Hint: u = 4 − e −x ;
4(2 sin x + 5)2 3
1 p p p
(c) (ln 2x)3/2 +C , Hint: u = ln 2x; (d) 4 1 + x +C , Hint: u = 1 + x;
3
1 1
(e) (2 + tan x)2 +C , Hint: u = 2 + tan x; (f) e −2/x +C , Hint: u = −2/x;
2 2 µ ¶
1 −1 2 1
(g) (tan x) + C , Hint: u = tan x; (h) 2 sin−1 ln x − 1 , Hint: First use u = ln x to
−1
2 2
2
Z
convert the integral as p d u, then complete the square 4u − u 2 = 22 − (u − 2)2 .
4u − u 2

1 1 1
3.5. (a) sin 10x + sin 8x +C , Hint: cos α cos β = [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)];
20 16 2
2
(b) tan4x − 4x +C , Hint: cos 2α = 2 cos α − 1.
9 1 22
(c) − ln |x + 2| − ln(x 2 + 1) + tan−1 x +C ,
5 10 5
A B x +C 9 1 22
Hint: The partial fraction form + 2 , with A = − , B = − ,C = .
x +2 x +1 5 5 5
1 1
(d) ln |x + 1| − ln |x + 2| + ln |x + 3| +C ,
2 2
A B C 1 1
Hint: The partial fraction form + + , with A = , B = −1, C = .
x +1 x +2 x +3 2 2
dv x x x x
Z
3.6. (a) 2π − 4, Hint: u = x, = cos ; x cos d x = 4 cos + 2x sin +C ;
dx 2 2 2 2
dv 2x − 1
Z
(b) −e −2 , Hint: u = 2x − 1, = e −2x ; d x = −xe −2x +C ;
dx e 2x
1 dv 1 1
Z
(c) 4
(1 + 3e ), Hint: u = ln x, = x ; x 3 ln x d x = x 4 ln x − x 4 +C ;
3
16 dx 4 16
π ln 2 dv
Z
(d) − , Hint: u = x, = sec2 x; x sec2 x d x = x tan x + ln |cos x| +C ;
4 2 dx
3 dv
Z Z
(e) − (1+e 3π/2), Hint: First use u = e 3x , = cos 2x to express e 3x cos 2x d x in e 3x sin 2x d x;
13 d xZ
3x d v
Z
then use u = e , = sin 2x to express e sin 2x d x in e 3x cos 2x d x; hence combine
3x
d x
2 3
Z
to get e 3x cos 2x d x = e 3x sin 2x + e 3x cos 2x +C ;
13 13
dv
Z
4 2 4
(f) 3e − e , Hint: ln(x ) = 4 ln x for x > 0, u = ln x, = x; 4x ln x d x = 2x 2 ln x − x 2 +C ;
dx
CHAPTER 3. INTEGRAL AND ITS APPLICATIONS 81
p
π 3 1 dv 1p
Z
(g) + −1
− , Hint: u = sin 2x, = 1; sin−1 2x d x = x sin−1 2x + 1 − 4x 2 +C ;
24 4 2 dx 2
π ln 2 π2 dv
(h) − − , Hint: u = x, = tan2 2x;
16 8 128 dx
1 1 1
Z
x tan2 2x d x = x tan 2x + ln |cos 2x| − x 2 +C ;
2 4 2

π 1 dv
(i) − , Hint: sin x cos x = sin 2x, u = x, = sin 2x;
4 2 dx
1 1
Z
x sin x cos x d x = sin 2x − x cos 2x +C ;
8 4

π2 1 dv
(j) , Hint: sin2 3x = (1 − cos 6x), u = x, = cos 6x,
36 2 dx
1 1 1
Z
x sin2 3x d x = x 2 − x sin 6x − cos 6x +C .
4 12 72
Z1 Z1
2 9
3.7. (a) , Hint: 4x(1 − x) d x; (b) , Hint: [(1 − y) − (y 2 − 1)] d y;
3 0Z 2 −2
π πh xi 22
Z
(c) 4 + , Hint: (2 sin x + 1) − d x; (d) , Hint: [(6 − y) − y 2 ] d y.
2 0 π 3
3.8. (i) C intersects the x-axis at (ln 5, 0), and the y-axis at (0, 4); (ii) y = 5; (iv) y = −x + 4;
µ ¶ Zln 5
148 π 2
(v) − 25 ln5 π, Hint: · 4 · 4 − π(5 − e x )2 d x.
3 3 0
Z1
16
π (2 − x 2 )2 − (x 2 )2 d x.
£ ¤
3.9. (ii) π, Hint:
3 −1
Z4 · µ ¶¸
15 4
3.10. (i) − 8 ln2, Hint: 5− x + d x;
2 1 x
4 2
Z4 · µ ¶¸
(ii) π(57 − 80 ln2), Hint: π 5− x + d x.
1 x
Zπ/3
4π p
3.11. (i) − 3, Hint: (3 − tan2 x) d x;
3 0
4π p
(ii) − 3, Hint: Express the area of R as an integral in y;
3 Zπ/3
8 2 2 π
(iv) π , Hint: π · 3 · − π(tan2 x)2 d x.
3 3 0

1 1 1 2
3.12. (a) y = 5 − 6 ln(1 − x); (b) y = − x 2 − ln x + 1; (c) x = e y−1 (y − 1); (d) x = e 3y + .
2 3 3 3
dz 1
3.13. (2x + y)2 + x + y = 11, Hint: By substitution, the equation is separable: = .
d x 2z + 1