INTEGRATION

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA

KNUST

August 17, 2022

 Definition

Z
f (x )dx

The differential dx is written next to the function to be integrated in

order to indicate the independent variable used for the original
differentiation, and the variable which is to be used for the integration.
Z
Thus, f (x )dx means that f(x) is to be integrated with respect to x.

It is important to remember that the variables in the function to be

integrated and the variables in the differential must be the same.

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 2 / 29

 We also need to note that, we can use other variables besides x to
indicate the independent variable.

Integrating X n
Integrating a function of the form x n is,
1
Z
x n dx = x n+1 + C
n+1
NB: The formula for integrating x n holds for all values of n except n = −1
which may be treated later.
Also,
a
Z
ax n dx = x n+1 + C
n+1

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 3 / 29

 Example

1.
5
Z
5x 8 dx = x 9 + C
9

2.
Z
√ Z
1
3 x dx = 3x 2 dx
1
x 2 +1
=3· 1 +C
2 +1
2 3
=3· x2 +C
3
3
= 2x 2 + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 4 / 29

 NB
The integral operator is a linear operator.
Z Z Z
[f (x ) + g(x )]dx = f (x )dx + g(x )dx
Z Z Z Z Z
E.g (x 3 + 5x 2 + 7x − 11)dx = x 3 dx − 5x 2 dx + 7xdx − 11dx
1 4 5 3 7 2
= 4x − 3x + 2x −x +C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 5 / 29

 Trials

Evaluate the following

Z
√1 dx
x
Z
√5 dx
x
Z
x −5 dx
Z
(− √5 3 + 5x 3 − 7x 2 )dx
x

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 6 / 29

 1
Integrating ax +b

Given the integral,

1 1
Z
dx = ln|ax + b| + C
ax + b a

E.g.1
Z
1
x = ln|x | + C

E.g.
Z 2
1
7x −4 dx = 17 ln|7x − 4| + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 7 / 29

 Integration of trigonometric functions
Z
1
sin(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · −cos(f (x )) + C
Z
1
cos(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · sin(f (x )) + C
Z
1
tan(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · −ln|cos(f (x ))| + C
Z
1
cot(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · ln|sin(f (x ))| + C
Z
1
sec 2 (f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · tan(f (x )) + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 8 / 29

 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Z
√ 1
1−x 2
dx = sin−1 x + C
Z
√ 1
a2 −x 2
dx = sin−1 ( xa ) + C
Z
− √ 1
1−x 2
dx = cos −1 x + C
Z
− √ 1
a2 −x 2
dx = cos −1 ( xa ) + C
Z
1
a+x 2
dx = 1a tan−1 x + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 9 / 29

 Integration of Hyperbolic functions
Z
1
sinh(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · cosh(f (x )) + C
Z
1
cosh(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · sinh(f (x )) + C
Z
1
tanh(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · ln|cosh(f (x ))| + C
Z
1
coth(f (x )) = f ′ (x ) · ln|sinh(f (x ))| + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 10 / 29

 Other integration
Z
1
(ax + b)n = a(n+1) · (ax + b)n+1 + C
Z
1
e f (x ) = f ′ (x ) · e f (x ) + C
Z
1
ax = lna · ax + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 11 / 29

 Z
Find (3x − 8)12 dx
Z Solution
1
From (ax + b)n = a(n+1) · (ax + b)n+1 + C ,
Z
1
=⇒ (3x − 8)12 = 3(13) (3x − 8)13
1
= 39 (3x − 8)13 + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 12 / 29

 Trial

Integrate the following functions:

Z
√
7x + 4dx
Z
(4 − 2t)7 dt
Z
sinh(2y )dy
Z
(3)3x dx
Z
2
e x dx

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 13 / 29

 Integration by Substitution

The role of substitution in integration is comparable to the role of the

chain rule in differentiation.
d
[f (g(x ))] = f (g(x ))g ′ (x )
dx
If u = g(x ), then du = g ′ (x ) and the integral takes the form:
Z Z
′
f (g(x ))g (x )dx = f (u)du = F (u) + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 14 / 29

 Z
√
Find 2x − 1dx
Solution
du
Let u = 2x − 1, dx =2
du
Z=⇒ dx = 2
1
du
u2 · 2
Z
1
1
= 2 u 2 du
3
= 12 ( 3/2
u2
)+C
3
= 13 u 2 + C
3
= 13 (2x − 1) 2 + C
q
1
= 3 (2x − 1)3 + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 15 / 29

 Trial

Solve the following integrals using substitution:

Z
√
t t − 3dt
Z
(3x − 5)11 dx
Z
y (4 − 2y 2 )7 dy
Z
√ z dz
z+9

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 16 / 29

 Integration by Parts

The method of integration by parts can be used to integrate many

complicated functions which obtained by multiplying more basic functions.
The integration by parts formula for indefinite integrals is given by:
dv du
Z Z
u dx = uv − v dx
dx dx
Also written as:
Z Z
udv = uv − vdu

Guidelines for Selecting u and dv: (There are always exceptions, but these
are generally helpful.)
Choose "u" to be the function that comes first in this list:

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 17 / 29

 L: Logarithmic Function
I: Inverse Trig. Function
A: Algebraic Function
T: Trig. Function
E: Exponential Function
Example
Z
1. xe x dx
Z
2. x 2 lnxdx

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 18 / 29

 Solution
du
Let u=x, dx = 1 =⇒ du = dx ,
dv x x
Zdx = e =⇒ v = Ze
du du
u dx dx = uv − v dx dx
Z Z
xe x dx = xe x − e x dx
= xe x − e x + C
= e x (x − 1) + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 19 / 29

 Solution
du
let u = lnx =⇒ dx = x1
dv 2 1 3
Zdx = x =⇒ v = Z 3x
du du
u dx dx = uv − v dx dx
Z Z
x 2 lnxdx = 31 x 3 lnx − 1 3
3x × x1 dx
Z
= 13 x 3 lnx − 1 2
3 x dx
= 31 x 3 lnx − 1 3
9x + C

= 91 x 3 (xlnx − 1) + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 20 / 29

 Trial

Solve the following integrals

Z
x 2 e 4x dx
Z
x 2 sinxdx
Z
(x + 1)2 ln3xdx
Z
e 2x cosxdx

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 21 / 29

 Integration by Partial Fraction

In this section we give a general method for evaluating indefinite integrals

of a ratio of polynomials (rational functions) by expressing it as a sum of
simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already know how to
integrate.

It is not easy to integrate straightforward without breaking the fraction

down. We will look at four cases involving different forms of the
denominator namely one with:

Distinct Linear factors

Repeated Linear factors
Distinct Quadratic factors

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 22 / 29

 Distinct linear factor

The denominator is a product of non-repeated linear factors. The partial

fractions representation of f(x) is:

N(x ) A1 A2 An
= + + ··· +
(x − a1 )(x − a2 ) · · · (x − an ) x − a1 x − a2 x − an

The constants A1 , · · · , An are evaluated as in the following example.

Evaluate the integral

2x + 1
Z
dx
(x + 1)(x − 1)

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 23 / 29

 2x +1 A B
= x +1
(x +1)(x −1) + x −1
2x + 1 = A(x − 1) + B(x + 1)
when x=1
3 = A(1 − 1) + B(2)
B = 23
when x=-1
−1 = −2A =⇒ A = 13
1 3
2x +1
= 3
+ 2
x−1
Z(x +1)(x −1) x +1 Z 1 3

2x +1
(x +1)(x −1) dx = x +1 + x −1 dx
3 2

1 3
= 3 ln(x + 1) + 2 ln(x − 1) + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 24 / 29

 Repeated Linear factors

The denominator in this case is a product of linear factors, at least one of

which is repeated. This is treated in the same manner as in Case 1, except
that a repeated factor (xa)k gives rise to a sum of the form:

a B D
+ 2
+ ··· +
(x − a) (x − a) (x − a)k

Evaluate the integral

3x + 1
Z

(x − 2)(x − 1)2

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 25 / 29

 Solution
3x +1 A B C
(x −2)(x −1)2
= x −2 + (x −1) 2 + x −1

3x + 1 = A(x − 1)2 + B(x − 2) + C (x − 1)(x − 2)

when x=1,
4 = −B =⇒ B = −4
when x=2,
7=A
when x=0
1 = A − 2B + 2C
1 = 7 − 2(−4) + 2C =⇒ c = −7
3x +1 7 4 7
(x −2)(x −1)2
= x −2 − (x −1)2 − x −1
Z Z h i
3x +1 7 4 7
(x −2)(x −1)2
= x −2 − (x −1)2
− x −1
4
= 7ln(x − 2) + x −1 − 7ln(x − 1) + C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 26 / 29

 Distinct Quadratic Factors

The denominator has irreducible quadratic factors, but none is repeated.

In this case, each quadratic factor x 2 + bx + c contributes a term
Ax + B
x2+ bx + c
to the partial fraction representation.
Example
Evaluate
x2 − 1
Z
dx
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1)

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 27 / 29

 Solution
x 2 −1 A
(x +2)(x 2 +1)
= x +2 + Bx +C
X 2 +1
x 2 − 1 = A(x 2 + 1) + (Bx + C )(x + 2)
when x=-2
3 = 5A =⇒ A = 53
when x=0,
−1 = 35 + 2C =⇒ C = − 45
when x=1,
0 = 2A + 3C + 3B
0 = 2( 35 ) + 3B + 3( −4
5 ) =⇒ B = 5
2
3 2
x 2 −1 x − 45
(x +2)(x 2 +1) = 5
x +2 + 5
X 2
Z Z
3
 +1
2

x 2 −1 x − 54
(x +2)(x 2 +1)
dx = x +2 + X 2 +1 dx
5 5

3 1 2 4 −1
= 5 ln(x + 2) + 5 ln(x + 1) − 5 tan (x ) +C

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 28 / 29

 Trial

Evaluate the following integrals

Z
2x 2 −3x 4
(x −1)2
dx
Z
1
(x +1)(x −5) dx
Z
ln(x +1)
x2
dx

M. A. BOATENG, PhD., MIMA (KNUST) INTEGRATION August 17, 2022 29 / 29