Cruising

Length Wingspan In
Aircraft Engine Seats Speed Orders Remarks
(m) (m) service
(Mach)
PASSENGER Airbus A350-900 253 (Long haul) - SQ is world’s largest operator
(133 in 66.8 64.8 0.85 62 3
303 (Medium haul)
service) Rolls-Royce Trent XWB-84
Airbus A350-900 ULR 161 7 (of 62) - World’s only operator of this variant

Airbus A380-800 Rolls-Royce Trent 900 - Launch customer

471 72.7 79.8 0.85 12
Engine Alliance GP7200 - 2 aircrafts to be retired
Boeing 737-800 NG CFM International CFM56 162 39.5 35.8 0.79 7 - Taken from Silkair

Boeing 737 MAX 8 CFM International LEAP-1B 154 - Taken from Silkair
39.5 35.9 0.79 16 13
- 8 orders cancelled in May 2023
Boeing 777-300ER GE90-115B 264 73.9 64.8 0.84 23

Boeing 777X-9 GE9X-105B1A - Deliveries expected to begin in 2025

71.8, 64.8
426, tentatively 76.7 31 - 11 order converted from 787-10 to be
(folded)
delivered in March 2026
Boeing 787-10 Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 TEN - Launch customer
General Electric GEnx - 2 orders swapped to 787-9s for Scoot in
337 68.3 60.1 0.85 16 15 June 2021
- 3 Scoot 787-9 orders swapped to 787-10s
for SIA in May 2023
CARGO Airbus A350F Rolls-Royce Trent XWB 97K - Launch customer
Replacing 747-400F - 70.8 64.8 0.85 7 - Expected deliveries in Q4 2025
- Ordered with 5 options
Boeing 747-400F - 70.7 64.4 0.85 7 - To be replaced by A350F

Boeing 777F GE90 - 63.7 64.8 2 3 - Operated for DHL

 Aircraft Maximum Take-off Range Thrust (pound force,
Weight (MTOW, ton) lbf)
PASSENGER Airbus A350-900 283 15,000 km/ 8,100 nm 84,200 x 2
(15 hour)
Airbus A350-900 ULR 280 18,000 km/ 9,700 nm 84,200 x 2
(over 20 hours)
Airbus A380-800 575 14,800 km/ 8,000 nm 78,000 x 4

Boeing 737-800 NG 79 5,436 km/ 2,935 nm 24,000 – 27,000 x 2

Boeing 737 MAX 8 82 6,570 km/ 3,550 nm 29,300 x 2

Boeing 777-300ER 351 13,649 km/ 7,370 nm 115,300 x 2

Boeing 777-9 351.5 13,500 km/ 7,285 nm 110,000 x 2

Replacing 777-300ER
and A380
Boeing 787-10 254.7 14,140 km/ 7,635 nm 76,000 x 2

CARGO Airbus A350F 319 8,704 km/ 4,700 nm 97,000 x 2

Replacing 747-400F
Boeing 747-400F 396.9 8,250 km/ 4,455 nm

Boeing 777F 347.8 9,200 km/ 4,970 nm 110,000 – 115,300 x

2
 Short Haul – 30 mins to 3 hours
Medium Haul – 3 to 6 hours
Long Haul – more than 6 hours

Kathmandu
SHORT HAUL Bali (DPS) 2h 40min
Tokyo
(KTM) Haneda
(HND)
Medan (KNO) 1h 25min
Dubai (DXB)
Surabaya (SUB) 2h 35min
Yangon (RGN)
Manila (MNL) Yangon (RGN) 2h 55min
MEDIUM HAUL Kathmandu (KTM) 5h 30min
Male (MLE)
Medan (KNO)
Male (MLE) 4h 15min
Surabaya (SUB)
Manila (MNL) 3h 15min
Denpasar, Bali (DPS)
Darwin Darwin (DRW) 4h 15min
(DRW)
LONG HAUL Tokyo Haneda (HND) 6h 30min
Johannesburg (JNB)
Dubai (DXB) 6h 50min
Christchurch (CHC) 8h 50min
Christchurch Johannesburg (JNB) 10h 20min
(CHC)
Routes (refer to maps) The last time I flew
- SG to PER (WA)
5 hours, south easterly heading, overfly JKT.
6 May, 7:55AM
TR818 Scoot – B787-8 Dreamliner
- SG to Syd (WA) Singapore (SIN) → Osaka (KIX)
7 hours 40 minutes, south easterly heading, overfly
Surabaya and the whole of Australia. 6h flight going there, 7h returning due to jet
streams blowing from west to east
- SG to LA/San Fran (West US) Will be flying past south china sea and east china
15 hours 55 minutes, north easterly heading, overfly the
Pacific Ocean (Great Circle Route). sea to arrive at Osaka.

- SG to NY (East US)
18 hours 30 minutes, north westerly heading, overflies
Cruising altitude → about 40000 ft
China, Mongolia, Russia, and parts of Greenland.
16 May, 1:00PM
- SG to EU
TR809 Scoot – B787-9
Generally overflies north westerly over India, Pakistan,
Afghanistan, Romania, and Austria. Tokyo Narita (NRT) → Singapore (SIN)

- SG to China/Mongolia/Russia
Generally flies northerly over Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand,
and China.

- SG to KR/JPN/PHP
Generally flies north easterly, crossing the South China Sea
(also crosses East China Sea if going to KR/JPN)
Longitude and Latitude
Used in the geographic coordinate system.
Latitude measures the Earth E-W, starting from 0 degrees at the Equator and 90 degrees at the North and South pole
- positive latitude indicates the northern hemisphere and negative latitude indicates the southern hemisphere
- The lines of latitude are also known as parallels.

Longitude measures N-S, lines of longitude are known as meridians

- The prime meridian (IERS aka International Reference Meridian) is the longitude line of 0 degrees and divides the world into the eastern
and western hemispheres
- Negative longitude is east and positive longitude is west of the prime meridian (east is least, west is best)

Important!
Attitude is angular
difference between
airplane’s axis and
Earth’s horizon

Altitude is measure of
plane’s height above
sea level
Daylight Savings
Advancing clocks (usually 1h) during warmer months so that darkness falls at a later clock time
- i.e. typically setting 1h forward in spring (spring forward) and 1h backward in autumn (fall
backward)
- 23h day in spring and 25h day in autumn

UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) aka Zulu time

- Primary time standard by which world regulates clocks and time
- Successor to GMT

International Date Line

Internationally accepted demarcation on the Earth’s surface that serves
as boundary between one calendar day and the next
Airbus A350-900/ -900ULR
Locations (source: Traveling for Miles, Flightradar, Wikipedia)
Australia Brisbane (BNE) Germany Munich (MUC)
- Long range, wide-body twinjet
- Competes with Boeing 787 Dreamliner, 777 and 777X Melbourne (MEL) Philippines Manila (MNL)
- It is a development of A330, succeeding Airbus A340 Adelaide (ADL) Canada Vancouver (YVR)
- First Airbus aircraft largely made of carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers Ends 30 Sep 2023
- Operated in Medium Haul, Long Haul and Ultra Long Haul configurations Japan Haneda (HND) Italy Milan (MXP)
- MH: aka regional, operates short- and medium-haul asia-pacific routes
Hong Kong, China Hong Kong (HKG) Rome (MUC)
- LH: operates flights to Europe, US and South Africa
- ULR: operates non-stop flights to JFK, EWR, SFO and LAX Beijing (PEK) India Mumbai (BOM)
- A350 is also offered in a longer -1000 and freighter variant Chengdu (TFU) Ahmedabad (AMD)
- ULR variant has increased fuel capacity from 24,000L to 165,000L
Guangzhou (CAN) Turkey Istanbul (IST)

Quick History New Zealand Christchurch (CHC) US San Francisco (SFO)

- Customers urged Airbus for 787 competitor Auckland (AKL) Los Angeles (LAX)
- Original design criticized for not being clean-sheet despite having designed new Netherlands Amsterdam (AMS) Houston (IAH)
wings, tail and cockpit
France Paris (CDG) Seattle (SEA)
- Successfully relaunched as new A350 XWB
- Shorter A350-800 variant cancelled due to minimal value over A350-900 (similar Russia Moscow (DME) Indonesia Jakarta (CGK)
range and length), A350-900 and A330neo better options Africa Cape Town (CPT) via Spain Barcelona (BCN) via
- Qatar Airways found unusually degraded paint on their 2022 world cup liveries, Johannesburg (JNB) Italy, Milan (MXP)
causing concern for potential damage and fuel tank ignition due to degradation Denmark Copenhagen (CPH) UK Manchester (MAN)
in lightning protection
United Arab Emirates Dubai (DXB) Malaysia Kuala Lumpur (KUL)
Why the A350?
- Low fuel burn and long range means SIA can use it across its entire network
- Generally replacing older 777-300ER on European routes
Airbus A350-900/ -900ULR Round, black outline
(raccoon mask)
Smooth,
Sharklets circular engine

Head up
display KEYBOARD AND CURSOR CONTROL UNIT (AIRBUS)
(HUD)

Liquid crystal display (LCD) touchscreen displays

Sidestick
A350-900 ULR routes

Los Angeles
(LAX) New York New York (JFK)
San Francisco (EWR)
(SFO)
Airbus A380-800
Locations (source: Mainly Miles)
- Long haul Widebody quadjet
- World’s largest passenger airliner and only full-length double-deck airliner Hong Kong, China Hong Kong (HKG)
- Competed with B747 (duh) Germany Frankfurt (FRA)
UK London Heathrow (LHR)
Quick History
India Mumbai (BOM)
- Entered market late, when 777 and A330neo came in with lower operating costs
- A350 and 787 further diminished the need for A380 Australia Sydney (SYD)
- 1 A380 costs about the same as 2.5 787 flights
- Received an award from Noise Abatement Society

How long will the quadjet last?

- SIA refitted their A380s with new cabin products to include new Suites and Business Class
seats, costing $850 million
- Likely to be taken over by the 777X-9 in time
Airbus A380-800
Egg-shaped X-
section (Ovoid)
Wingtip fence

Airbus has tables

for the crew

Quad-engine
 737-800 NG
Locations (source: Mainly Miles)
- Short-medium haul Narrow body twinjet Malaysia Kuala Lumpur (KUL)
- Competed with A320 family
Penang (PEN)
- Upgrade of 737 Classic which competed with McDonnell Douglas MD-80 and A320 family, thus
Airbus updated the family to 737 Next Generation Thailand Phuket (HKT)
- Compared to Classic has large wing area, wider wingspan, greater fuel capacity, higher MTOW
and longer range
- Best-selling variant and most widely used narrow body aircraft
- Most routes taken over by 737 MAX 8s

SIA prefers MAX 8s over NG, so why did it stay?

- Initially meant for Scoot after merger
- Global MAX 8 groundings (caused by 2 fatal crashes in late 2018 and early 2019) halted their
introduction into the fleet, forcing SIA to keep 737-800 NG
- SIA slowly reducing fleet size of this model
737-800 NG No black outline,
sharp edges

Blended
winglets

Smooth, circular
engines

Larger flight
deck displays in
MAX, similar to
787 and 777X
737-8/ 737 MAX 8
Locations (source: Mainly Miles)

- Long haul Narrow body twinjet Malaysia Penang (PEN) Philippines Davao (DVO)
- Fourth generation of Boeing 737, succeeding 737 Next Generation Vietnam Hanoi (HAN) Cebu (CEB)
- Competes with Airbus A320neo Da Nang (DAD) Myanmar Yangon (RGN)

Global 737 MAX 8 groundings Cambodia Siem Reap (REP) India Kolkata (CCU)
- Two fatal crashes caused by malfunction of flight control system MCAS Phnom Penh (PNH) Chennai (MAA)
(Manoeuvring Characteristics Augmentation System) Indonesia Medan (KNO) Hyderabad (HYD)
- Lion Air Flight 610 on October 29, 2018
Surabaya (SUB) Bengaluru (BLR)
- Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 on March 10, 2019
- Larger engines on MAX airplanes needed them to be positioned more Denpasar (DPS) Cochin (COK)
forwards on the wing to accommodate the size, causing the nose to pitch Nepal Kathmandu (KTM) Australia Darwin (DRW)
upwards Maldives Male (MLE) Cairns (CNS)
- MCAS implemented to automatically trim the nose down, to mimic flight
behaviour of 737 NG and save costs on pilot training Korea Busan (PUS) Brunei (BWN) -
- However, MCAS was triggered on both flights by falsely high AoA inputs from
faulty sensors, and both flights struggled to gain altitude

SIA shifting focus to higher capacity aircraft to catch post-COVID wave

- MAX 8 fleet not growing until mid-2024
- Taking on more 787-10s which would have the highest capacity in the fleet
after A380
737-8/ 737 MAX 8 Dual feather design
(see difference below)

Serrated
nacelles

Dual feather Split scimitar Blended (737-800 NG)

777-300ER
Locations (source: Mainly Miles)

- Long-haul widebody twinjet US Los Angeles (LAX) via France Paris (CDG)
Tokyo Narita (NRT)
- Competes with A340-600 and A350-1000, generally replacing the 747-400
- Belonging to the 777-X generation, succeeding the 777 Classics and exceeded by Germany Frankfurt (FRA) Indonesia Jakarta (CGK)
777X Thailand Phuket (HKT) India Mumbai (BOM)
- Originally to bridge the gap between twin engine 767 and quadjet 747 UK London Heathrow (LHR) Delhi (DEL)
- Classics developed in consultation with 8 major airlines (aka the Working Together
group, ANA, American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Delta Air Line, Japan Australia Sydney (SYD) Hong Kong, Hong Kong
China (HKG)
Airlines, Qantas, and United Airlines)
- 777 series became Boeing’s most profitable aircraft, the 777-300ER being its most Melbourne (MEL) New Zealand Auckland (AKL)
popular variant Japan Tokyo Haneda (HND) Switzerland Zurich (ZRH)
- Largest of the family before 777X Tokyo Narita (NRT)

777 Fun Facts

st Fly-by-wire Boeing airliner

Commercial aircraft designed entirely by computer
To be awarded ETOPS-180

- Is the world’s largest twinjet (777X-9)

777-300ER No winglets

Smooth, circular “mouth”

engines where APU is
 Boeing 787-10 (my favourite <3 )
- Long-haul widebody twinjet
- Same fuel capacity as 787-9 but with more passenger capacity, its
range is limited and thus more suited for high-capacity, medium-range
regional flights
- Adapted from Boeing’s cancelled Sonic Cruiser project as airlines
favoured cost and fuel efficiency over speed

Advanced Technology
- 787 Dreamliners possess bleedless engines and flight systems, opting
for electrical architecture, extracting 35% less power from engines
thus improving thrust and fuel efficiency
- Wing ice protection uses electro-thermal heater mats on wing slats
instead of bleed air
- Cockpit features a head up display and fly-by-wire controls similar to
777
- Vertical tail employs hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC) to reduce Locations (source: Mainly Miles)
turbulent airflow by suctioning in boundary layer air, reducing drag Nepal Kathmandu (KTM) Korea Incheon (ICN)
- Fuselage is a single piece of composite material, eliminating the need Germany Frankfurt (FRA) Indonesia Bali (DPS)
for fasteners and rivets and reducing parasitic drag
Thailand Bangkok (BKK) India Chennai (MAA)
- Cabin pressure is 6000ft instead of the traditional 8000ft with 15%
humidity instead of 4% Vietnam Ho Chi Minh (SGN) Delhi (DEL)
- 787 has a supercritical aerofoil which increases the critical mach Japan Kansai (KIX) Hong Kong, China Chongqing (CKG)
number of the wing, reducing shockwave formation
Fukuoka (FUK) Philippines Manila (MNL)
Must watch: The Insane Engineering of 787
Tokyo Narita (NRT) Australia Perth (PER)
Chubu (NGO) Taiwan Taipei (TPE)
 737 NG/MAX Cockpit windows
Boeing 787-10 come to a point,
like an arrow
Raked
wingtips

Other models
have a sharp dip

Serrated
nacelles

First to offer HUD as

standard equipment
 777X-9
- long-range widebody twinjet
- Taking over 777-300ER and A380, more fuel efficient
- Response to A350 XWB, competing with -1000 variant
- Not clean-sheet design, technologies adapted from 787 Dreamliner (see cockpit)
- Features all composite wings, folding wingtips and new GE9X engines which
have a 12:1 bypass ratio
- Folding wingtips will allow it to fit into airports that support 777-300ER
- Seating capacity much larger than typical widebody twinjets, closer to quadjets
- External fuselage x-section same as 777-300ER but 10cm wider internally
- Airbus unlikely to offer stretched -1000 variant (-1100), hence Boeing decided to
pursue and own this market
- As of now, its GE9X engines are the largest (can fit 737 fuselage) with the record
for the highest thrust

Fun fact:
Serrated nacelles (GEnx, 787 and LEAP-1B, 737 MAX) reduce noise but with a drag
penalty. 777X GE9X has no serrated nacelles as it uses ceramic matrix composite
materials which allows it to be quieter without the drag penalty

@andrewsamuelson3275 on Why Doesn’t The GE9X Have Chevrons? (YouTube)

777X-9

Folding wingtips

Similar design to 787

(shown below)
The basics
Adapted from 2016 FAA Pilot’s handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, Ace the
Technical Pilot Interview, Wikipedia, Skybrary
Newton’s Third Law
4 principles of flight For every action or force there is an equal but opposite
Thrust reaction or force
- Forward force produced by engines
- Opposes and overcomes force of drag In straight and level flight at a constant speed,
- Lift = weight
- Thrust = drag
Lift
- Produced by lower pressure created on the upper surface of aerofoil Also important: Bernoulli’s Principle
compared to the higher pressure beneath the aerofoil An increase in the speed of a fluid occurs
- Shape of aerofoil causes air flowing over it to travel a greater distance and at simultaneously with a decrease in static pressure or a
a faster speed (lower pressure) decrease in the fluid’s potential energy
- Opposes weight
I.e. Speed increases → pressure decreases, and vice
versa
Drag
- A rearward, retarding force caused by disruption of airflow
- Parallel to direction of motion of a body through fluid
- Friction of air as it meets and passes over an airplane and its components

Weight
- Acts vertically downward from centre of gravity (CG) of airplane
- Opposes lift
 Drag

Parasite/Profile/Zero-lift Drag Induced Drag

- Increases with speed - Impossible for any aircraft to be 100%

- Higher speeds → aircraft meets more air efficient
molecules that resist its motion - Induced drag always present and is
inherent in the production of lift
- More efficiency = less induced drag
Form/Pressure Drag Interference Drag Skin Friction Drag - Associated with wingtip vortices

- Generated by aircraft - Produced by intersection of - Aerodynamic resistance due to contact of moving air
due to its shape and airstreams that create eddy with surface of aircraft
airflow around it currents, turbulence or - Air molecules in direct contact with surface virtually
(cowlings, antenna, etc) restricting smooth airflow motionless → each layer above this surface moves
- Air separates to move - Most observed when 2 slightly faster until they match the velocity of airflow
around aircraft → how surfaces meet at → aka free-stream velocity
quickly air rejoins perpendicular angles - Area between wing and free-stream velocity is
represents the form drag boundary layer air
- Easiest to reduce → - Reduced by using flush-mount rivets and glossy
streamline as many parts smooth finish → protruding surfaces and dirt can
as possible increase drag
Parts of the Aerofoil

Angle of Attack (AoA)

The acute angle between chord line of
aerofoil and direction of relative wind

Relative wind Exceeding critical AoA will result in a stall

Camber
Curvature of upper surface of aerofoil
 Primary Flight Controls

Ailerons Elevator Rudder

- control the roll, acting in opposition of - Acting in tandem to control pitch - Controls yaw
each other - Elevator deflect down → more - When rudder deflected into
- Aileron deflects upwards (lower AoA = lift is generated pushing it up → airflow → horizontal force
less lift) and the other deflects pushes nose down exerted in opp direction
downwards (higher AoA = more lift) →
plane rolls on the side with less lift
Secondary Flight Controls
Flaps
- Reduce stalling speed of aircraft wing
- Generates more lift at slower airspeed →
airplane can fly at reduced speed with lower risk
of stalling

Spoilers (aka air brakes/speed brakes)

- Mounted on upper surface of wings or fuselage
- Increase drag and decrease lift by disrupting
airflow over wing

Slats
- high-lift devices
- Increases surface area and camber of wing →
increase lift during low-speed operations
(takeoff, initial climb, approach, landing)

Trim
- Adjusts aerodynamic forces on control surfaces
so that aircraft remains at set attitude without
any control input
Wingtip Devices

Purpose
Reduce wingtip vortices → reduce drag

What are wingtip vortices?

- Air flows from area of high pressure to
area of low pressure
- At tip of wings, this flow of air from
underside of wing to upper surface
mixes with downwash, forming fast-
spinning trailing vortex
- Greater size and strength of vortices
→ greater induced drag

Sharklets same as winglets, Airbus

renamed them over copyright lawsuit
Turbofan

- 80% of forward thrust is generated by bypass air,

not combusted air
- Bypass air also helps reduce noise

SUCK SQUEEZE
Air is taken in through the Compression takes place in the rotor
core of the engine, rest of blades and stator vanes of the low
the air bypasses around it pressure compressor and high
pressure compressor, heating the air
What is bypass ratio in turbofan?
Ratio between mass flow rate of Rotor blades accelerate the air and
bypass stream to mass flow rate the stator vanes aid in increasing air
entering engine core pressure (bike pump getting hot
- 777-9 GE9X largest with 10.1:1 after pumping air into bike tyres)
bypass ratio

BANG BLOW
In the combustion chamber, the The air passes quickly through the
heated air is mixed with high pressure turbine which turns
atomised fuel, causing it to the high pressure compressor and
burn, expanding and low pressure turbine which turns
accelerating the low pressure compressor
Turbojet
Turbojet engine employs same principles as turbofan, without low
pressure compressor, turbine and fan (no bypass air, i.e. all air that
passes through is burnt)

Turbofan uses a 2-spool design, turbojet uses single-spool

Extra – Afterburner
Fuel is mixed with the exhausted hot air as an additional combustion,
very inefficient and used mainly by military supersonic aircraft to
increase thrust for takeoff and combat
Turboprop
- Propellor engines use a propellor to
generate thrust
- More efficient at lower speeds

Reverse flow, free turbine turboprop engine

Same principles, slight changes in design
- Air is directed to rear end of engine into the low pressure
axial compressor, gets heated up
- Fuel mixed with heated air ignites immediately, expanding
and accelerating
- Combustion powers the compressor turbine which drives the
*drum roll* compressor
- Gas then passes through power turbine (drives the power Gas Section
shaft) before being exhausted Power Section
- The reduction gearbox lowers the RPM to a suitable speed for
the propellor

Free turbine means

- compressor shaft and power shaft not connected to each
other
- Power turbine and compressor turbine also turn in the opp
direction
- Excess torque in engine could flip plane over if shafts were
connected and turbines spinning in same direction
Conversions
1 Hectare – 10000 m
1 Mach (speed of sound) 1234.8km/h
1 Knot (nm/h) – 1.85 km/h
1 nautical mile – 1.15 mile/1.85 km
1 km – 0.54 nautical mile
1 feet – 0.33m

Subsonic Transonic Supersonic Hypersonic

Mach ≤ 0.8 Mach 0.8 – 1.2 Mach 1.2 – 5.0 Mach > 5

1 2
𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 × 𝜌𝑣 𝑠
2
L = Lift
CL = Co-efficient of lift
½ ρ = rho (air density)
V2 = velocity
S = wing surface area
Bleed air system
Extracts air from aircraft engine compressor or APU to power other aircraft systems
- If one engine is inoperable or APU is required → crossbleed valve opens → air
from single operating engine is distributed to entire system
- Efficiency and max thrust is reduced due to this system Recall
- Since bleed air taken from engine is extremely hot, air-air heat exchanger used to 787 Dreamliner uses electrical
reduce temperature architecture to replace the bleed
- If bleed computer detects that air temperature is abnormal, bleed valves close to air system, how does this improve
the aircraft?
prevent damage to other systems
No bleed air taken from engines
Which systems? means more thrust, thus more fuel
efficiency
- Pressurisation
- Air-conditioning
- Cools air in packs (heat exchanged with external ram air, refrigerated, then
moisture removed) before feeding into cabin and cockpit
- Anti-ice (mainly cowlings and leading edges)
- Hydraulic/water reservoir pressurisation
- Prevents pump cavitation
- Engine starter motor

APU typically used on the ground when engine not running

Pitot Static System

- Airspeed indicator (ASI), altimeter and vertical speed indicator (VSI) rely on air
pressure readings

Static/ambient/atmospheric pressure – pressure exerted by air on all objects at all times

even when still. Varies with altitude, higher altitude = less static pressure

Dynamic pressure – exerted by air in the opposing direction of an object in motion,

dependent on speed of object and air density. Higher speed = more dynamic pressure

Total/ram air pressure – sum of static and dynamic pressure

- Pitot static system consists of pitot tube (only sends info to ASI) and static port (sends
info to all 3 instruments)
- Pitot tube subject to position errors during certain manoeuvres like slow flight, gusts
and turbulence, use of flaps and slats (air hitting the pitot tube at a different angle)
- Static port is located on side of fuselage where precise reading of static pressure can
be read, also subject to position errors during slides or skids when dynamic pressure
partially exerts on static port
What’s inside the flight deck/cockpit?
EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrument System)

What does “glass cockpit” mean?

EFIS
Cockpit designs composed entirely of digital displays (EFIS) More advanced

EHSI (Electronic
Horizontal Situation
Indicator)

PFD (Primary ND (Navigation Display)

Consists of:
Flight Display) EADI (Electronic - Horizontal situation
Attitude Director indicator
Consists of: Indicator)
Condenses the pilot “6 pack” - GS
- Horizontal situation indicator
Consists of: - DME
- TAS and GS
- Attitude indicator Consists of: - RMI
- Wind direction and speed
- Altimeter - Attitude indicator - Graphical representation
- DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
- Airspeed indicator (ASI) - Flight director (FD) of flight plan (map
- RMI
- Vertical speed indicator (VSI) - ILS deviation scales mode)
- Graphical representation of flight plan
- Heading indicator - Flight mode annunciator
(map mode)
- Slip and skid indicator - Radio altimeter NO weather radar or
- Weather radar
May also include: - Relative speed scale terrain
- Terrain
- ILS deviation scales
- Flight mode annunciator
- Radio altimeter
- Navigation and
communication frequencies
PFD (example)
ND (example)
ETOPS (Extended-range Twin-engine Operations Performance Standards/Extended Range Operations)
EDTO (Extended Diversion Time Operations)
Engines Turn Or Passengers Swim
- Initially introduced as a safety regulation and certification for only twin-engine aircraft
operation in airspace further than 60 mins from a diversion airport at the one-engine
inoperative cruise speed
- This was to be consistent with the then modern 3 and 4-engine aircrafts which were not
restricted and could operate international long-haul flights
- ETOPS updated to EDTO by ICAO in 2012, but still universally called ETOPS
- Twin-engine planes became more advanced and reliable, allowing ETOPS to be
increased to ETOPS-120 (B767-200)
- After 1 year of unproblematic ETOPS-120 operation, extended to ETOPS-180 (B777)
- A350 XWB first to receive ETOPS-370 approval, covering 99.7% of the Earth’s surface

CRM (Crew Resource Management)

Crew resource management is a system and mode of interaction where you use all available resources
to increase safety and improve the efficiency of operations. These resources can include procedures,
equipment, teamwork, and interpersonal communication and are not limited to the flight deck.

Developed as a response to new insights into the causes of aircraft accidents which followed from the
introduction of flight data recorders in modern aircraft

Info gathered from these devices has suggested that many accidents do not result from a technical
malfunction of the aircraft or its systems but appears being caused by the inability of crew to respond
appropriately to the situation which they find themselves in
ILS (Instrument Landing System)
Precision runway approach aid based on two radio beams which together provide pilots with
both vertical and horizontal guidance during an approach to land. Made up of PAPI, glideslope,
and localiser.
- PAPI (Precision approach path indicator) – usage of 4 red and white lights in a row, if
aircraft is in the glideslope the lights are WWRR, too high is WWWW and too low is RRRR
- localiser antennas are responsible for horizontal axis and the glideslope antenna is
responsible for the vertical axis
- Glideslope can be interpreted using VOR receiver, PFD, ADI, or HIS

GPS (Global positioning system)

It is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the US government that provides
positioning, navigation and timing services.

Mayday vs PAN PAN

Mayday – from “Maidez” (French for help me), used as word for emergencies as it was different
from typical English phraseology
- Mayday fuel declared when calculated usable fuel on landing is less than minimum fuel
reserves (i.e. 30 mins of fuel)
- Minimum fuel declared when aircraft only has sufficient fuel remaining to follow cleared
routing, execute arrival and approach procedure with little or no extra fuel

PAN PAN – from “panne” (French for breakdown), used for non-life threatening but urgent
situations
V speeds
There are numerous V speeds, the most common are V1, V2, Vr and Vref
V1 – Take-off decision speed, it’s the maximum speed allowed before deciding to abort take-off to allow for enough clearance to
stop on the runway, otherwise a runway overrun may occur
V2 – Take-off safety speed, the speed at which the aircraft may safely climb with one engine inoperative
VR – Rotation speed, speed at which pilot begins to apply control inputs to cause aircraft nose to pitch up after which it will take-
off
VREF – Landing speed, 1.3x the stall reference speed of the aircraft in landing configuration (Vsr0)

Air speeds
IAS → Calibrated AS (corrected for instrument and position errors) → Equivalent AS (CAS corrected for compressibility error) →
TAS (EAS corrected for density error) → GS (TAS corrected for wind)
- In practical use, IAS ≈ CAS
- Compressibility error only really needed for high speeds (>300 knots), usually done by avionics computers in real time, so if
flying at low speeds IAS = EAS

IAS (Indicated air speed) TAS (true air speed) GS (ground speed)
Measures dynamic pressure using pitot-static TAS is speed that airplane moves in relation to Speed of the aircraft relative to the ground,
system. As aircraft climbs, IAS less than TAS, air mass surrounding it. If air is still and aircraft vertically climbing airplane would have 0 GS
since flight characteristics also change with is straight and level, TAS = GS. TAS is calculated
lowered air density, IAS is more important than by adjusting IAS for pressure and temperature
TAS.
SIA HISTORY

1 May 1947
Founded as Malayan Airways.
1966
- First flight was a flight from
When Singapore separated,
Singapore to KL. 2016 2021
1957 airline renamed again to
- Subsequently, many flights First A350 Silkair merged
Went public Malaysia – Singapore Airlines
to KL, Ipoh, and Penang. delivered with SQ

1955
1963 1972
The fleet has grown to
When the merger Malaysia wanted to focus more on
include a large number
happened, the airline its domestic route, but Singapore
of Douglas DC-3
renamed to wanted to focus more on its
Malaysian Airways. international route.
- Commenced operations as
Singapore Airlines
- Kept most of its Boeing 707 and
737 and since then expanded its
international routes.
About Singapore Airlines
Where
75 destinations in 32 countries

Shareholders
- Napier Investments
- Temasek Holdings
- Citibank Nominees Singapore
- DBS Nominees
- Raffles Nominees
- DBSN Services
- HSBC Nominees
- United Overseas Bank Nominees
- Phillip Securities
- OCBC Nominees

Subsidiaries
- Scoot
Core Values
- SIA Engineering Company Excellence Safety Customer-focus
- SIA cargo
- SIA Flying College Care Integrity Teamwork
- Vistara (49%)
Recent news (as of 8 June 2023)

Highest net profit in 76-year history – 16 May 2023

- Net profit of 2.16b for fiscal year 2022/23, recovery of 3.12b form its net loss of 962m last year
- Total revenue grew by 133.4%, 7.61b to 17.78b

SIA cancels orders for 8 B737 MAX 8s – 16 May 2023

- Swapping 3 787-9s from Scoot for 787-10s for SIA and cancelling 8 737 MAX 8s
- Group’s passenger capacity reached 79% of pre-COVID levels, higher than 58% level for international
scheduled services across Asia-Pacific airlines
- SIA and Scoot collectively carried 26.5m passengers, 6x more than previous year, load factor was
85.4% (highest in group’s history)

SIA providing free Wifi for all passengers from July 1 – 6 June 2023
- First major international airlines worldwide to offer free, unlimited Wifi to all passengers
- Applies to all aircraft (129 of 136) except 737-800 NGs which are not Wifi enabled
Airbus Philosophy
- Both manufacturers share the philosophy that the pilots are ultimately responsible for the safe operation of
the aircraft
- Airbus stated that “Automation should allow the operator to use the safe flight envelope to its full extent…”
(Spitzer, Ferrell 2015: 224) (Airbus 2017: 6)
- This design philosophy is reflected in Airbus’s flight control laws. In Normal and Alternate Law, the flight crew
can manipulate the flight controls but cannot make any input which causes the aircraft to operate outside a
pre-defined set of parameters (Ibsen 2009: 343).
- Thus flight crew do not have complete authority over the aircraft as certain flight envelope protections are in
place to ensure various aircraft limitations are not exceeded. These are known as “Hard” limits (Spitzer,
Ferrell 2015: 224). These flight envelope protections are removed in Direct Law, but this law can’t be
manually selected by the crew (Ibsen 2009: 343).

Boeing Philosophy
- Boeing states that “The pilot is the final authority for the operation of the aeroplane” (Spitzer, Ferrell 2015:
224)
- In the design of its fly-by-wire aircraft, pilot has complete control authority of the aircraft, regardless of
whether this results in departure from the normal flight envelope (Harris 2011: 379).
Why is there a difference in philosophy?
- Airbus introduced this ‘hard limit’ philosophy and subsequent technology into its A320 aircraft which entered service
in 1987
- Most airline accidents are caused by Human Error (Wiegmann, Shappell 2016: 10), so this technology was introduced
ideally to enhance flight safety.
- It has been consistently applied on all Airbus models since A320, simplifying and streamlining crew training and
aircraft maintenance resulting in cost reductions for the airlines (Ibsen 2009: 347).

- Boeing decided to embrace the philosophy of full pilot authority over the aircraft through being able to override any
fly-by-wire system, when B777 was introduced, which was the first Boeing aircraft to incorporate the technology
(Ibsen 2009: 347)
- With an extensive history of aircraft design, this allowed for commonality for Boeing aircraft pilots (Ibsen 2009: 347).
The flight crew can fly the aircraft unrestricted whether they are operating old, new, small or large airframes from the
Boeing family.
Pilot licenses (source: Pilot Kaki)
Private Pilot License (PPL)
- Most basic license for leisure flying
- Attainable through SYFC, SIA/Scoot cadet pilot programmes, or individually

Commercial Pilot License (CPL)

- Required to operate aircraft for hire and reward, such as in an airline
- CPL only option for individuals not sponsored by airline
- Can only operate as co-pilot for airline
- CPL papers are less comprehensive than ATPL papers, and if ATPL papers are taken
instead a frozen ATPL will be awarded in addition to CPL

Multi-crew Pilot License (MTPL)

- Only available for airline sponsored candidates
- Candidates sit for ATPL papers and attain MTPL and frozen ATPL
- MPL holders can only fly for airline sponsoring them

Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL)

- “crown jewel” of licenses
- Only license allowing one to operate as captain in multi-crew aircraft
- If candidate possesses CPL/MTPL and passes ATPL papers, they need 1,500 flight hours
to “un-freeze” ATPL