MODULE 1

SEX, GENDER, AND CULTURE

Basic Concepts of Sex, Gender, and Culture

Introduction
The world is gendered - but what is gender? We know gender is fundamental to the way in which
we see ourselves and others, and how our communities and institutions are organized, but why? Why do
gender norms and stereotypes emerge? What effects do they have on our lives? This module will introduce
you to the major concepts in sex and gender, including: anatomy and physiology of reproduction, process
of reproduction, sexual health and hygiene, risky behaviors of adolescence, masculinity and femininity
across cultures, gender roles and gender division of labor, theories of inequality, stereotyping and
discrimination. These concepts will help you analyze how sex, gender, age, ethnicity, race, class, politics
and social movements intersect to influence your understanding of sex, gender, and culture.

1.1. SEX CONCEPTS

Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females, such as the
genitalia and genetic differences. The differences between male and female sexes are
anatomical and physiological. “Sex” tends to relate to biological differences.
When a baby begins to grow, the different parts of its body such as the head, arms,
legs and chest grow at different rates.
For about the first 12 years of its life goes through a phase of body enlargement and
mental development.
During this phase its reproductive organs develop at a slower rate.
At 12 years of age, body enlargement slows down and certain other changes begin to
appear. These changes prepare the body for sexual reproduction. This phase is known as
adolescence.
During this phase, certain parts of the body change in appearance and the person also
experiences new sensations such as extreme happiness, sadness, anger, insecurity, and so
on. All this is due to the beginning of the secretion of hormones from the ovary and testis.
The age when this begins is called the age of sexual maturity (puberty). It varies from
person to person. It is marked by the growth of thick hair in the armpits and pubic area. In
males, facial hair begins to grow.
The vocal cords become wide. Therefore, the voice begins to deepen. The testes
become active and begin to produce sperms. The penis and scrotum become larger. In
females, the menstrual cycle begins and the breasts become enlarged.
These changes are slow and take place over six years or so. They serve as signals
identifiable by other individuals that sexual maturation is taking place. From this period
onwards, sexual reproduction becomes a possibility as the body becomes capable of
producing the specialized germ cells that are needed for sexual reproduction. But
childbearing and lactation (milk secretion) need the female reproductive organs and breasts
to be fully developed.
Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Illustrate, identify and give the parts and functions of female and male reproductive
organs.
• Explain the process of human reproduction.
 • Define and describe sexual health and hygiene.
• Enumerate risky behaviors and identify risk-taking activities

1.1.1. Anatomy and Physiology of Reproduction

Anatomy is the study of the structures of the human body, such as the features of
how the organs, tissues and body systems are constructed. Physiology, on the other hand,
is the study of the coordinated functions of the organs, tissues and systems in the body.
In male and female anatomy, many bodily functions are similar. The circulatory and
digestive system, for example, function in much the same ways in both male and female
bodies. The biggest differences between male and female anatomy are in the reproductive
system. The female sexual anatomy and its composite parts allow women to become
pregnant and bear children. While the reproductive organs in the female anatomy perform
their own specific functions, they also work together as a highly complex, interrelated
system.

Figure 1.1. Female Reproductive Organ

Source: everydayhealth.com

The female reproductive system includes the:

▪ Vagina – a muscular passage that connects the cervix with the external genitals. It is the organ
where the penis is inserted during the intercourse for the discharge of sperms. It is also the passage
through which the fully developed baby is born.
▪ Cervix – the lower part of the uterus that connects to the vagina and consists of a ring of muscles.
▪ Uterus – a hollow, pear-shaped, elastic muscular structure where the fertilized egg implants and
fetus grows during pregnancy. Its upper portion, into which the Fallopian tubes enter, is broader. It
opens into the vagina through the cervix. A fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a bay inside the
uterus.
▪ Ovaries – These are 2 glands that produce eggs, as well as the female hormones estrogen and
progesterone. At the time of birth, a female already has thousands of immature ova in her ovaries.
Many of these degenerate during childhood. The ova start maturing when the female reaches
puberty. Every 28 days, one of the ovaries releases an ovum. When an ovum is released from the
ovary, it is taken up by a thin Fallopian tube (also called oviduct) through its funnel-shaped
opening. The ovum is passed down the duct and into the uterus, which passes it out of the body
through the vagina.
 ▪ Fallopian tubes (also called oviduct) – 2 thin tubes that connect the ovaries with the uterus. Each
Fallopian tube has a funnel-shaped opening near the ovary. It is lined by cilia. The movement of
the cilia helps conduct the ovum down the Fallopian tube and into the uterus.
Watch this video https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-andphysiology/pages/27-2-anatomy-and-
physiology-of-the-femalereproductive-system to observe ovulation and its initiation in response to the
release of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland. What specialized structures help guide the oocyte from
the ovary into the uterine tube?
Figure 1.2. Male Reproductive Organ

Source: vectorstock.com1855418

The male reproductive organ includes the:

▪ Testicles (or testes) – 2 oval-shaped organs that produce and store millions of tiny sperm cells, as
well as male hormones, including testosterone. There are two oval testes, each contained in a
protective bag called scrotum (or scrotal sac), lying outside the abdominal cavity.
▪ Epididymis – 2 coiled tubes that connect each testicle to the vas deferens
▪ Scrotum (or scrotal sac) – a pouch of skin that hangs outside the pelvis to hold and regulate the
temperature of the testicles. It can elongate and contract depending upon the body temperature
lower than normal body temperature. This is necessary because sperm formation occurs at a
temperature lower than normal body temperature. The testes produce sperms continuously from
the stage of puberty onwards.
▪ Vas Deferens – a muscular tube that transports sperm from the testicles to the ejaculatory ducts. It
runs interiorly up to the urinary bladder, from where it leads downward and is joined by a duct
from the seminal vesicle.
▪ Seminal vesicles/gland and prostate gland – glands that produce seminal fluid. It is an elongated
sac at the base of the urinary bladder. For each testis, there is one vas deferens and one seminal
vesicle are to store the sperms that have come from the testis and to secrete seminal fluid, or semen,
in which the sperms float.
▪ Urethra – the tube that passes urine and semen out of the body
▪ Penis – It is a muscular, tubular organ made up of loose tissue with spaces in between. This is
called erectile tissue. On being stimulated, the erectile tissue fills with blood, making the penis
erect and firm, so that it may enter the vagina of the female and discharge the sperms.
▪ Prostate Gland – The sperm ducts from both sides join near the base of the urinary bladder,
opening into a single tube called urethra. This junction occurs inside the prostate gland. The
prostate gland adds its secretion to the seminal fluid. The urethra leads to the outside of the body
through an organ called penis. It carries both urine and seminal fluid.
Watch this video:
(https://medlineplus.gov/ency/anatomyvideos/000121.htm) to explore the structures of the male
reproductive system and the path of sperm, which starts in the testes and ends as the sperm leave the
penis through the urethra. Where are sperm deposited after they leave ejaculatory duct?

1.1.2. THE PROCESS OF REPRODUCTION

Human reproduction is a complex and remarkable process. Male and female

reproductive system compliments one another, and each is essential for
reproduction.

Gamete Production
The process of reproduction in humans begins with meiosis. In human meiosis, diploid cells with the
usual 46 chromosomes divide into four haploid daughter cells, each containing 23 chromosomes. Each of
these daughter cells is called a gamete. In males, this meiotic process is called oogenesis, and the daughter
cells are called ova. Males begin spermatogenesis at puberty and continue throughout life. Healthy young
adult males produce hundreds of millions of sperm each day. This number begins to decline by their mid-
20s.
Unlike males, females begin to produce gametes before they even are born. By the fifth month in womb,
female fetuses have begun oogenesis, but the process pauses after a phase called prophase I, suspending
the ova in the primary oocyte stage until puberty. 99.9 % of a female’s ova remain in the primary oocyte
stage until they are eventually absorbed by the body. Millions are absorbed by the time a fetus is born, and
by puberty, only 400,000 remain. For every ovulation, about 2,000 more ova are absorbed.

Watch this video: youtube.com/watch?v=lH9loPdk_nQ How do gametes produce?

Sexual Intercourse
The four stages of the human sexual response cycle occur during partnered sex with people of any
gender, as well as other sexual stimulation activities. The first stage is excitement, the beginning of arousal,
in which blood flow increases and causes engorgement in the genitals and nipples, accompanied by an
increase in heart rate, breathing rate, muscle tone and blood pressure. Next is the plateau stage, which is
brief, and which involves an increase in arousal.
The third phase is orgasm, which involves waves of muscle spasms and pleasure that last several seconds.
During this phase, the uterus has several contractions, and the penis has contractions at its base, causing
semen, the fluid containing sperm, to ejaculate into the vagina. The last stage is resolution, during which
the body relaxes to its original state.

Fertilization
When semen is discharged in the vagina during sexual intercourse, the sperms begin moving up the vagina
and uterus, finally reaching the Fallopian tubes. But only one sperm enters the ovum. Most of the sperms
die while climbing up the Fallopian tubes. A sperm can remain alive in the Fallopian tube for about 12
hours. In this span of time, if it meets the ovum, it is likely to enter the ovum. This is called fertilization.

Watch this video:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5OvgQW6FG4 to see the journey of sperms after sexual intercourse.

Implantation:
The fertilized egg (zygote) moves down the Fallopian tube and continuously undergoes cell division. Thus
it forms a hollow ball of cells, called embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus, which
is thick and has muscles, glands and a large number of capillaries. This process is called implantation.
Watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t3zh22GTGsM to understand more about implantation.

Pregnancy
The developing embryo at first derives nourishment directly from the mother’s blood flowing in the
vessels limiting the uterine wall. In about three weeks, its starts absorbing food and oxygen through an
organ called placenta. The placenta is a disc like organ in the lining of the uterine wall.
It has numerous villi which are in direct contact with the mother’s blood flowing in the uterine wall. These
villi provide a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the embryo and for
wastes produced by the embryo to be passed into the mother’s blood. The embryo is connected to the
placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord.
By eight weeks, the embryo starts showing human features and is referred to as fetus. The total period of
embryonic development, from the time of fertilization of birth, is called gestation period. It is around 280
days, or 9 months, in humans.

Watch this video to watch how fetus is developed week by week from an embryo:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VktZZEeGdSs

Birth
The wall of the uterus develops a thick layer of muscles during pregnancy. At the time of birth, the uterine
muscles contract rhythmically and powerfully, causing labor pains to the mother. Finally, the baby is
expelled by the contraction of the uterine muscles. This is called birth or parturition.

Sexual Reproduction Model

Some reproduction does not require intercourse but is the result of artificial insemination when a couple
has fertility problems or a single prospective parent or a same-sex couple choose a sperm donor. Also,
while male and female are simple terms for the biological processes of reproduction in humans, this
language excludes the sexuality of transgender and intersex people. For example, a cisgender man (a man
whose gender matches his birth sex) and a transgender man (a man who was assigned female at birth) who
has not undergone sex reassignment surgery can have sexual intercourse with each other, and the
transgender man can become pregnant.

1.1.3. Sexual Health and Hygiene

WHO defines sexual health as a state of physical, emotional, mental and social well-being in relation to
sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive
and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having
pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. For sexual health
to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled.
During a meeting held in Antigua, Guatemala in May 2000, an expert group convened by the Pan
American Health Organization and WHO in collaboration with the World Association for Sexology (WAS)
compiled an overview of sexual concerns and problems that should be addressed in order to advance
sexual health (PAHO/WHO 2000). Sexual health concerns are life situations that can be addressed
through education about sexuality and society-wide actions in order to promote the sexual health of
individuals. The health sector has a role to play in assessment, and in providing counselling and care.

Sexual Health Concerns

1. Sexual health concerns related to body integrity and to sexual safety
• Need for health-promoting behaviors for early identification of sexual
problems (e.g. are regular check-ups and health screening, breast and
testicular self-scans).
 • Need for freedom from all forms of sexual coercion and sexual violence
(including rape, sexual abuse and harassment).
• Need for freedom from body mutilations (e.g. female genital
mutilation).
• Need for freedom from contracting or transmitting STIs (including
HIV).
• Need for reduction of sexual consequences of physical or mental
disabilities.
• Need for reduction of impact on sexual life of medical and surgical
conditions or treatments.
2. Sexual health concerns related to eroticism
• Need for knowledge about the body, as related to sexual response and
pleasure.
• Need for recognition of the value of sexual pleasure enjoyed throughout
life in safe and responsible manners within a values framework that is
respectful of the rights of others.
• Need for promotion of sexual relationships practiced in safe and
responsible manners.
• Need to foster the practice and enjoyment of consensual, non-
exploitative, honest, mutually pleasurable relationships.
3. Sexual health concerns related to gender
• Need for gender equality.
• Need for freedom from all forms of discrimination based on gender.
• Need for respect and acceptance of gender differences.
4. Sexual health concerns related to sexual orientation
• Need for freedom from discrimination based on sexual orientation.
• Need for freedom to express sexual orientation in safe and responsible
manners within the values framework that is respectful of the rights of
others.
5. Sexual health concerns related to emotional attachment
• Need for freedom from exploitative ( something unfairly for your own
advantage, act of using someone), coercive ( using force or threats.),
violent or manipulative relationships.
• Need for information regarding choices or family options and lifestyles.
• Need for skills, such as decision-making, communication, assertiveness
and negotiation, that enhance personal relationships.
• Need for respectful and responsible expression of love and divorce.
6. Sexual health concerns related to reproduction
• Need to make informed and responsible choices about reproduction.
• Need to make responsible decisions and practices regarding reproductive
behavior regardless of age, sex and marital status.
• Access to reproductive health care.
• Access to safe motherhood.
• Prevention of and care for infertility.

Sexual Health Problems

• Sexual health problems are the result of condition, either in an individual, a

relationship or a society, that require specific action for their identification,
prevention and treatment.
• The expert working group of PAHO/WHO proposed a syndromic approach
to classification that makes problems easier to identify by both health
 workers and the general public, and easier to report for epidemiological
considerations.
• All of these sexual health problems can be identified by primary health
workers. Some can be addressed by trained health workers at a primary
level, but for others referral to a specialist is necessary.
• Clinical syndromes that impair sexual functioning (sexual dysfunction) such
as sexual aversion, dysfunction sexual arousal and vaginismus in females,
and erectile dysfunction and premature ejaculation in males.
• Clinical syndromes related to impairment of emotional attachment or love
(paraphilias) such as exhibitionism, paedophilia, sadism and voyeurism.
• Clinical syndromes related to compulsive sexual behavior such as
compulsive sexual behavior in a relationship.
• Clinical syndromes involving gender identity conflict such as adolescent
gender dysphoria.
• Clinical syndromes related to violence and victimization such as clinical
syndromes after being sexually abused as a child (including post-traumatic
stress disorder); clinical syndromes after being sexually harassed; clinical
syndromes after being violated or raped; clinical phobia focused on
sexuality; patterns of unsafe sexual behavior placing self and/or others at
risk for HIV infection or/and other STIs.
• Clinical syndromes related to reproduction such as sterility, infertility,
unwanted pregnancy, abortion complications.
• Clinical syndromes related to reproduction such as genital ulcers, urethral,
vaginal or rectal discharge, lower abdominal pain in women, asymptomatic
STIs.
• Clinical syndromes related to other conditions such as clinical syndromes
secondary to disability or infirmity, secondary to mental or physical illness,
secondary to medication.

Hygiene is a series of practices performed to preserve health. According to the

World Organization (WHO) "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help
to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases." Personal hygiene refers to
maintaining the body's cleanliness.

Problems and Strategies

According to WHO reports, out of global burden of ill health, reproductive and
sexual ill-health accounts for 20% for women and 14% for men.

• Family Planning
The program of family planning was initiated in 1951 to achieve total
reproductive health.
• Maternal Health
Early child bearing can have health risk for women and their infants. A girl
before 18 years of age is not matured with respect to her reproductive system to
bear a child. At least two years’ gap is necessary before going for the second
issue.
• Proper Medical Care
The WHO estimates that each year 358000 Women die due to complications
related to pregnancy and childbirth. 99% of these deaths occur in poorest
countries of the world. Most of these deaths can be avoided with improving
 women’s access to quality care from skilled medical professionals before,
during and after pregnancy and child birth.
• Awareness
Audio-visual and print media, government and nongovernment agencies are
creating awareness among people about reproductive health. Parents, close
relatives, friends and teachers also have a major role in giving this information.
• Sex education
Sex education should be introduced and encouraged in schools to provide right
information about myths and misconceptions about sex related issues.
• Access to reproductive and sexual healthy
Family planning counselling, pre-natal care, safe delivery, post-natal care,
appropriate treatment of infertility, prevention of abortion, treatment of sexually
transmitted diseases, responsible parenthood, services against HIV/ AIDS,
breast cancer should be made available.
• Birth control devices
Fertile couples and people of active sex life should know about available birth
control devices.

• Prevention of sex abuse and sex related crime

These are social evils which can be controlled by proper law and order as well
as public awareness. This will build up a reproductively healthy society.

• Misuse of Amniocentesis
Amniocentesis is a method of sex determination of fetus. Chromosomal study
of amniotic fluid cells can determine the sex of the fetus and also to identify any
abnormality in number of chromosomes to detect any serious incurable
congenital defect so that the fetus may be aborted. But, this technique is being
used to kill normal female fetus. It is legally banned to avoid female feticide.

1.1.4. Risky Behaviors of Adolescence

Teens engaging in risky behavior is nothing new. Teens have a reputation for being
wild. Psychological and physiological changes in the adolescent body and brain
contribute to risk-taking behavior.
Glorified by the media in numerous novels and films, teen risky behavior is scary
in real life.

The Top Five Risky Behavior

What exactly are risky behavior examples? There’s a wide range of behavior
patterns that can be classified as risky. In general, however, risky behavior in teens
can be broken down into roughly five categories.
a. Behavior that may lead to violence or injury: This category includes being in
a fight, bullying or being bullied, carrying a weapon, self-harm, and considering
or attempting suicide.
b. Unsafe sexual behavior: This category includes having intercourse before the
age of 13, not using protection during intercourse, not being tested for HIV or
other sexually transmitted diseases. It also includes drinking alcohol or using
drugs during or before intercourse.
c. Alcohol, substance, and tobacco use: This category includes drinking alcohol
in any amount, binge drinking, and using prescription or illegal drugs, as well
as smoking cigarettes or using chewing tobacco.
d. Unsafe driving or riding: This category includes driving while texting or e-
mailing, driving after drinking or using drugs, or not wearing a seatbelt.
Furthermore, it includes riding in a car with a driver who has been drinking or
using drugs. It also includes riding a bike after drinking or using drugs, and
riding a bike without a helmet.
e. Poor self-care: This category includes unhealthy eating, not sleeping enough,
inadequate physical activity, and excessive social media and screen time.
Why adolescents take risks?
When it comes to risky behavior, adolescence is the perfect storm. There are many
reasons why teens are drawn to risk-taking behaviors. In addition, peer pressure can
be a factor. External stresses can push teens toward these behaviors to let off steam.
Therefore, taking risks can be a misguided way for teens to strike out on their own
and feel independent.
But teen risk behaviors are also a result of physiological changes that impact the
brain and the nervous system. In an essay on teen risk behaviors written for Slate
magazine, Alan E. Kazdin, former president of the American Psychological
Association, and Carlo Rotella, director of American studies at
Boston College, put it like this: “About the time of the onset of puberty, changes in
brain structure and function, hormones, and neurotransmitters work together to
increase the desire to seek out rewarding experiences, especially the sensation
afforded by novel and risky behavior.”

Positive Risk-Taking: Finding Healthy Challenges

Risk-taking is not always a bad thing. In fact, a certain level of safe, positive risk-
taking is essential for teens to develop their sense of self and gain self-esteem.
Healthy risk-taking activities include the following:

• Playing sports
• Outdoor adventures
• Performing on stage
• Volunteering in an unknown situation
• Reaching out to make new friends