KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering (0000) 00(0):1-10 Construction Management

Copyright ⓒ2014 Korean Society of Civil Engineers

DOI 10.1007/s12205-014-0633-9 pISSN 1226-7988, eISSN 1976-3808
www.springer.com/12205
TECHNICAL NOTE

Non-Destructive Testing Methods in the U.S. for Bridge

Inspection and Maintenance
Sangwook Lee*, Niko Kalos**, and Do Hyoung Shin***
Received December 26, 2012/Accepted September 5, 2013/Published Online May 20, 2014

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Abstract

This paper presents an overview of how Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods are currently impacting bridge management in
the United States (U.S.). It is necessary for researchers and policy makers to have a clear understanding of how NDT methods are
being utilized if they are to improve bridge management strategies. After a historical review of the development of a bridge
management system, a detailed discussion of currently available NDT methods illustrates the principles, application areas, and
limitations of the methods. As state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) are the key bridge management institution in the U.S., the
authors conducted a thorough review of current state DOT bridge inspection manuals to identify how NDT methods are incorporated
into state bridge management systems to reflect their own local conditions and in what situations they are considered. The authors
found that total 30 states have their own bridge inspection manuals, among which eight states addressed the use of NDT methods in
their inspection manuals explicitly. Only one state DOT, Indiana, discussed NDT methods and their applications in detail in a
separate section.
Keywords: non-destructive testing, bridge management, bridge inspection, bridge inspection manuals
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1. Introduction U.S. so that researchers and industry practioners can further

improve these technologies, enabling bridge management
There were 603,259 bridges in 2009 that U.S. government agencies to acquire higher volume and quality of structural
agencies are responsible for maintenance and inspection condition data.
(FHWA, 2009). State governments are responsible for their own After the collapse of the I-35W Bridge in Minneapolis,
bridge management systems, which has led to varied bridge Minnesota, a joint group was formed by the American Society of
management standards and practices throughout the country. Civil Engineers (ASCE) and the American Association of State
Federal agencies, such as the Federal Highway Administration Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) to evaluate the
(FHWA), have also created independent bridge management bridge management practices in the U.S. The joint group found
strategies and standards, available to any state government as that there is currently a lack of standardized procedure for the use
supplemental materials. of NDT techniques. Additionally, areas in which a particular
Over the last six decades, bridge management in the U.S. has NDT method should be used in certain situations requires
evolved to meet ever increasing standards of acceptable clarification and the cost effectiveness of these methods must be
structural conditions, number of bridges requiring inspection, taken into account (ASCE/SEI-AASHTO, 2009). This shows the
and advancement in relevant technologies. As a large portion of need for the improvement of NDT methods, designs and relevant
the bridges in the U.S. near their design lifetime, it is critical for materials to improve bridge management practices in general.
bridge management agencies to extend the useful life of a bridge, The purpose of this paper is to investigate commonly used
while maintaining a high standard of safety. This can be NDT methods and their application areas and limitations, and to
accomplished if precise and accurate data on a structural identity what provisions, if any, state inspection agencies have at
condition can be gathered quickly and cost-effectively. As a their disposal when conducting inspections with NDT. The
result, Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) methods have been authors believe this article should be also useful to bridge
developed to facilitate rapid and effective bridge inspections. It is inspection practitioners by delivering a wide range of practical
important to understand the way NDT methods are utilized in the studies on the current use of non-destructive testing methods and

*Assistant Professor, Dept. of Construction Engineering and Engineering Technology, Texas Tech University, Texas 79409, USA (Corresponding Author,
E-mail: [email protected])
**Graduate Student, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas Tech University, Texas 79409, USA (E-mail: [email protected] )
***Member, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Inha University, Incheon 402-751, Korea (E-mail: [email protected])

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 Sangwook Lee, Niko Kalos, and Do Hyoung Shin

presenting research results on how the testing methods are National Cooperative Highway Research Program. BRIDGIT is
incorporated into state inspection manuals to reflect local a BMS software package intended to meet the needs of state,
conditions. The authors start with a brief historical overview of local, and other bridge inspection agencies by providing
bridge management practices in the U.S. to provide the guidance on network-level management decisions and project
background on how bridge management systems have been level actions (Hawk, 1999).
developed by discussing important milestones. Then, Section 3 In 1991, the FHWA updated their bridge inspector training
provides a discussion of available NDT methods categorized by program that was used by many states as their primary means of
the type of material they are designed to inspect. The intent of qualifying inspectors (Hartle, 1991).
this discussion is to inform the readers on how common NDT In December 2006, the FHWA revised the Bridge Inspector’s
methods work in theory and what types of structural defects they Reference Manual. The new manual included the latest
are used to detect. The advantages and limitations of each inspection methods and technologies and is commonly cited by
technology are also presented from a total of 25 NDT methods. state agencies for inspector reference. Additionally, the FHWA
An analysis of state DOT bridge inspection manuals is stored more than 14 million inspection data entries over a 24-
discussed in Section 4, in which 52 bridge inspection manuals year period to 1983. All of this information was available in
were considered. The purpose of this analysis is to clarify what National Bridge Inventory (NBI). This database is the most
information associated with NDT is available at the state level comprehensive source of information on bridges in the country
and how this affects the application of NDT methods. The and offered valuable information for bridge management in all
authors conclude with relevant findings drawn from discussions areas of bridge management research (Dekelbab et al., 2008).
previously made in Section 5. The collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge collapse in
2007 brought renewed attention to the nation’s bridge
2. History of Bridge Management and Inspection management system and methods, and a joint ASCE/AASHTO
group issued a general report on needed improvements and
On December 15, 1967, the Silver Bridge in Point Pleasant, updates to the NBI (ASCE/SEI-AASHTO, 2009).
West Virginia, collapsed killing 46 people. After this disaster,
Congressional hearings on the failure took place and found 3. Overview of Non-Destructive Testing Methods
through testimony that there were no national standards on how
bridge inspections should be performed at what frequency. All current NDT technologies are discussed based on the types
Congress called for strategies to accurately determine the of structural materials they are designed to inspect, i.e. steel or
possibility of bridge structural collapse at the federal level concrete. The technologies covered were chosen based on
(FHWA, 2004). technologies described in the Bridge Inspector’s Reference
The “Federal Highway Act of 1968” required the Secretary of Manual published by FHWA in 2006 (Ryan et al., 2006). The
Transportation to establish a national bridge inspection standard FHWA Manual was chosen for several reasons: (1) It provides a
and to develop a training program for bridge inspectors. As a comprehensive guide for all state agencies about how to conduct
result, the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) was their bridge inspection programs, and (2) It is the most recent
established in 1971. The NBIS set national policy regarding publication of its type. Additionally, state DOTs throughout the
bridge inspection frequency, inspector qualifications, report U.S. use this document as a primary reference for NDT guidance
formats, and rating procedures. and specifications. This part is discussed in more detail in the
The Schoharie Creek Bridge failed in 1987 after a pier was next section.
undercut by scour, killing ten people (Swenson and Ingraffea,
1991). As a result, the NBIS was modified in 1988 to require that 3.1 Concrete Inspection NDT Technologies
states identify bridges with fracture critical elements and Sixteen NDT methods were chosen for concrete structure
establish underwater inspection procedures. The FHWA also inspection. These are: Acoustic emission, electrical method,
issued a major revision to its Coding Guides, shaping the delamination detection machinery, ground penetrating radar,
National Bridge Inspection Program for the next decade, electromagnetic methods, pulse velocity, impact-echo testing,
providing inspectors with additional information on performing infrared thermography, ultrasonic testing, laser ultrasonic testing,
uniform and accurate bridge inspections (Ryan et al., 2006). magnetic method, neutron probe, nuclear method, pachometer,
In 1991, a Bridge Management System (BMS) called smart concrete, and rebound and penetration.
“PONTIS” was developed as a tool for structured decision
making and planning/scheduling for bridge inspections, main- • Acoustic Emission: The phenomenon of acoustic sound
tenance, or bridge retrofit. By building a database of inspection generation in structures under stress is called Acoustic
reports, photographs, core logs, and other relevant bridge Emission (AE). Acoustic emission works by detecting how
condition data, PONTIS became a powerful tool for bridge acoustic waves in materials propagate due to the presence of
inspections agencies (Tarighat and Miyamoto, 2009). structural flaws (Parmar and Sharp, 2009). Under an applied
Simultaneously, software called BRIDGIT was developed by the load, a stress acts on the material and produces local plastic

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 Non-Destructive Testing Methods in the U.S. for Bridge Inspection and Maintenance

deformation. This stress produces an elastic wave that travels concrete member to detect cracks. Infrared thermography
outward from the source, moving through the body until it can be divided into two major groups: passive and active
arrives at sensors attached to the surface of the structure thermography. Active thermography involves intentionally
(Hellier, 2001). An AE test covers a large area with one test heating or cooling a surface before it is tested to induce
and it can also be used for continuous monitoring (Chotickai, temperature differences; while in passive thermography,
2001). the testing is done without any induced external heating or
• Electrical Methods (Half Cell Method): This method is used cooling. The passive approach is the most common
to detect corrosion in reinforced steel concrete. It approach for bridge inspection (Stimolo, 2003; Breen et al.,
accomplishes this by measuring the potential difference 2010).
(voltage) between the steel and a half-cell apparatus, usually • Ultrasonic: Ultrasonic Testing (UT) utilizes sound waves at
made of copper or copper sulfate. The half-cell apparatus is frequencies above the audible range to measure the integrity
used as a voltage reference source. An indication of the of objects (Hellier, 2001). The UT method consists of
relative probability of corrosion activity is obtained measuring the time required for an ultrasonic pulse to travel
empirically through measurement of the potential difference through bridge structural members (Mohamed and Rens,
between a standard portable half-cell placed on the surface 2001). Cracks or voids within a material will increase the
of the reinforced concrete deck and the reinforcing steel (Gu transit time of an ultrasonic pulse versus a solid material of
et al., 1996). the same dimension. This time difference is what UT
• Delamination Detection Machinery: A variety of sonic methods measure, allowing an inspector to accurately
methods, delamination detection machinery is based on determine the thickness and depth of a crack or void
sonic responses from a material and is used to inspect (Toutanji, 2000).
concrete decks. The instrument is moved across the concrete • Laser Ultrasonic Testing: This method uses standing Lamb
deck and acoustic signals are sent to the deck. Then the wave initiation and detection. A pulsed laser produces an
reflected signals are received and electronically interpreted impact on the member under inspection. If concrete quality
and the outputs are used to generate a plan of delaminated is good in the inspected area (local concrete layer is thick),
areas (Celaya et al., 2010). no detectable Lamb wave is created. However, if the impact
• Ground Penetrating Radar: Ground Penetrating Radar position takes place over a defected area, a standing Lamb
(GPR) detects and analyzes how electromagnetic waves wave is created, and it can be detected by a photorefractive
propagate through a material. The instrument is moved interferometer (Kotyaev et al., 2006).
across the concrete deck and electromagnetic signals are sent • Magnetic Method: This method is used to detect damage to
to the deck via an antenna. GPR is a powerful method of reinforcing steel in concrete members. A magnetizing yoke,
nondestructive evaluation because it is relatively insensitive positioned on the surface of the concrete member or applied
to ambient conditions and is effective with and without directly to the rebar if circumstances allow, applies a
asphalt overlays (Huston et al., 2000). magnetic field to the reinforcing steel. An increase in the
• HERMES: Based on GPR technology, the High Speed measured magnetic field indicates damage to the rebar
Electromagnetic Roadway Mapping and Evaluation System (Makar and Desnoyers, 2001). If the locations of rebars are
(HERMES) was designed to perform accurate and rapid unknown, the magnetic method is paired with another NDT
evaluations of concrete bridge decks. HERMES creates method, such as ground penetrating radar, to first locate the
three-dimensional images of bridge deck interiors by reinforcement and then inspect it for damage.
detecting electromagnetic waves as they propagate through a • Neutron Probe for Detection of Chlorides: Also known as
material (Scott et al., 2001). Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation (PGNA), this NDT
• Pulse Velocity: Similar to Ultrasonic Testing, the pulse method determines the composition of light elements (Ca,
velocity method measures the velocity of ultrasonic pulses Si, Fe, Cl, S, Al) in concrete. The amounts of these elements
through a material. The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse present in concrete provide an assessment of the concrete’s
through a concrete member is a function of its structural general structural condition. A given section of concrete is
integrity (Yaman et al., 2001). irradiated with neutrons by a portable californium neutron
• Impact-Echo Testing: This method uses steel ball or a source. When irradiated, each element produces a
hammer which strikes a material to produce a stress wave on characteristic gamma ray which is detected and counted by a
the surface of the structure (Liu and Yeh, 2011). Two highly pure germanium detector (Naqvi et al., 2007).
receivers set at known lengths away from the impact • Nuclear Methods: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is
measure the time between the impact and when the stress particularly effective at detecting the presence of water
wave arrives at the receivers (Jaeger et al., 1997; Ryan et al., molecules. NMR works by exciting hydrogen atoms with a
2006). pulse of radio waves. After this pulse, the hydrogen atoms
• Infrared Thermography: This method uses an infrared return to their previous energy state, releasing a
camera to measure the emitted infrared radiation from a characteristic signal. Aggressive ions such as chlorides and

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 Sangwook Lee, Niko Kalos, and Do Hyoung Shin

sulfates dissolve in water, and can penetrate deep into a the strength of the concrete that was struck. However,
concrete member, initiating corrosion of reinforcing steel because of the high variability of concrete mixes, there is no
(Zhang et al., 2011). absolute scale for concrete strength based on the measured
• Pachometer: Also known as a cover meter, a pachometer is rebound. Thus, this method can only be used to determine
used to detect the presence of ferromagnetic materials (e.g. relative concrete strength throughout a concrete bridge
steel or iron) embedded in concrete. Primarily, a pachometer (Ryan et al., 2006).
measures the depth of concrete cover to the reinforcing steel. • Smart Concrete: Used to detect strain magnitude and
It operates by generating a magnetic field and measuring the direction, a polymer-matrix composite containing short
interaction between the field and the metal. The intensity of carbon fibers is applied like paint to a concrete member. The
the response is a function of the location and size of the carbon fibers have unique piezoresitivity (the change in
embedded material. A pachometer is very useful for resistance of a material under mechanical load) properties,
determining if a section of a road deck has inadequate allowing them to be used as microscopic strain gauges. After
concrete cover due to erosion on the surface (Ryan et al., the polymer-matrix is applied, electrical leads are attached
2006). somewhere on its surface, and a common multi-meter
• Rebound and Penetration: In use since the 1950s, this measures its resistance (Wang and Chung, 1998).
method is very simple and easy to use. A standardized Table 1 illustrates the areas for application, as well as known
hammer strikes the surface of the concrete, and the amount limitations or problems, for each concrete NDT method
of rebound is measured. The amount of rebound is related to discussed above.
Table 1. Concrete NDT Methods
NDT Method Applications Limitations Reference
Requires material to be under stress to detect Parmar & Sharp (2009);
Cracks, dislocations, twining, phase
Acoustic Emission flaws, less effective for certain loading Hellier (2001);
transformation, delamination
scenarios. Very sensitive to external noise. Ryan et al. (2006)
Electrical Methods Only measures the probability of Gu et al. (1996);
Corrosion of rebar
(Half Cell Method) corrosion taking place. Ryan et al. (2006)
Delamination Detection Less effective for irregular shapes Celaya et al. (2010);
Delamination
Machinery and very thin materials. Ryan et al. (2006)
Delamination, concrete thickness,
Less effective as concrete Huston et al. (2000);
Ground Penetrating Radar rebar embedment depths, bridge
cover thickness increases. Ryan et al. (2006)
deck condition
Delamination, concrete
Less effective as concrete Scott et al. (2001);
HERMES thickness, rebar depths,
cover thickness increases. Ryan et al. (2006)
deck condition
Less effective for brittle materials, Yaman et al. (2001);
Pulse Velocity Cracks, voids
irregular shapes, or very thin materials Ryan et al. (2006)
Voids, honeycombs in concrete, Requires multiple impact locations for Jaeger et al. (1997);
Impact-Echo Testing delamination, concrete bond integ- high accuracy. Cannot estimate Liu & Yeh (2011);
rity, voids in tendon ducts concrete-steel bond strength. Ryan et al. (2006)
Hellier (2001);
Bridge deck integrity with
Infrared Thermography Sensitive to contaminants on the bridge deck. Stimolo (2003);
or without overlays
Ryan et al. (2006)
Hellier (2001);
Less effective for brittle materials such as cast
Ultrasonic Cracks, voids Mohamed & Rens (2001):
iron, irregularly shaped or very thin members.
Toutanji (2000)
Concrete integrity and quality,
Laser Ultrasonic Testing New technology, requiring more study. Ryan et al. (2006)
position of reinforcing steel
Makar & Desnoyers (2001);
Magnetic Method Rebar damage Less effective for thicker concrete cover.
Ryan et al. (2006)
Complicated and expensive equipment.
Neutron Probe Chemical composition of concrete Naqvi (2007)
Requires high level of expertise.
Only measures the probability of corrosion
Zhang et al. (2011);
Nuclear Methods Water content of concrete taking place. Requires high level of expertise.
Ryan et al. (2006)
Complex analysis procedures.
Pachometer Depth of concrete, Rebar coverage Cannot detect deterioration of reinforcement. Ryan et al. (2006)
Must have some data for comparison to
properly determine concrete strength. Hellier (2001);
Rebound and Penetration Relative concrete strength
Requires core samples for reference Ryan et al. (2006)
or bridges less than a year old.
New technology, still primarily Wang & Chung (1998);
Smart Concrete Strain magnitude and direction
in research phase. Ryan et al. (2006)

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 Non-Destructive Testing Methods in the U.S. for Bridge Inspection and Maintenance

3.2 Steel Inspection NDT Technologies suspended (Hellier, 2001). A penetrant test requires no
Nine NDT methods were chosen for steel structure inspection. specialized equipment and can be performed rapidly.
These are: Acoustic emission, corrosion sensors, smart paint, • Magnetic Particle: The magnetic particle method is used to
penetrant testing, magnetic particle, radiographic testing, detect surface or near surface defects. The steel member to
ultrasonic testing, eddy current and robotic inspection. be inspected is placed under a magnetic field and a fine
powdered ferrous material is sprayed or blown onto the
• Acoustic Emission: AE is also used to inspect steel member. The concentration of the ferrous particles indicates
structures, and operates on the same principles as described the presence of a crack of flaw (Ryan et al., 2006). In order
in the concrete structures section. As steel deforms under for this method to work, the magnetic field must be aligned
stress, it produces energy in the form of elastic waves. perpendicular to an expected discontinuity, requiring that the
Damage in the steel will correspond to detectable inspector have some idea of where the crack is located
fluctuations in the elastic wave, which are picked up by beforehand.
sensors attached to the surface of steel members (Nair and • Radiographic Testing: Using either gamma or x-rays, this
Cai, 2010). AE is particularly effective at detecting fatigue in testing method is used to detect cracks, voids, separations, and
steel members, and is commonly used to inspect fracture- inclusions in a steel member. When high energy radio waves
critical sections of a bridge. pass through a metal object, they are absorbed differently by
• Corrosion Sensors: This method evaluates direct flaws. To capture the location of flaws, photographic film is
measurements of the electrical resistance of steel members to placed on the opposite side of the member from which the
detect the extent and rate of corrosion in the member. A radio waves are being emitted. The photographic film creates
continuous monitoring tool, corrosion sensors provide a a permanent record of defects with a 1:1 ratio to the actual
direct measurement of metal loss (Denzine et al., 1996; Li et geometry of the member (Hellier, 2001).
al., 2007). • Ultrasonic Testing: In addition to concrete structures, UT
• Smart Paint: A very new NDT method, smart paint uses can be used to inspect steel members and operates on the
microencapsulated dyes that outline fatigue cracks as the crack same principle as described previously. It is primarily used to
forms and propagates. The paint contains a small resin layer detect cracks, loss of cross section, and measure the
which conducts electricity, and electrodes are attached to thickness of steel members. Additionally, UT can be used to
measure the depth and size of a crack (Ryan et al., 2006). This measure real time strain of a steel member, particularly
promising method could enable engineers to monitor vibrations useful when trying to evaluate structural response due to
throughout the lifetime of a structure, allowing for very accurate dynamic loads such as road traffic (Fuchs et al., 1998).
predictions of when fatigue will become a problem. • Robotic Inspection: Designed to eliminate the need for human
• Penetrant Test (Dye Penetrant): One of the most widely used inspectors, robotic inspection is essentially an automated
NDT methods, the penetrant test is used to detect surface inspector who does not require rest or pay. A specially
flaws in steel members. Based on the principle of capillary designed car holds the robot in a specially designed multi
action, the surface tension of the dye allows it to penetrate linkage system, and allows it to move freely underneath a
into small openings in steel. These capillary forces are very bridge. The robot is equipped with a variety of cameras and
strong, and can act against the force of gravity, which is sensors that allow it to locate cracks or other flaws, without
particularly useful when inspecting steel members which are putting a human inspector in danger (Oh et al., 2009).

Table 2. Steel NDT Methods

NDT Method Applications Limitations Reference
Requires material to be under stress to detect flaws, less effective Hellier (2001); Nair & Cai
Acoustic Emission Fatigue
for certain loading scenarios. Very sensitive to external noise. (2010)
Less effective when corrosion is in initial stages, highly localized, Denzine et al. (1996);
Corrosion Sensors Corrosion of steel
or very mild. Lengthy response time. Li et al. (2007)
Smart Paint Crack geometry New technology, still primarily in research phase. Ryan et al. (2006)
Penetrant Test Hellier (2001);
Surface flaws Does not reveal the depth of cracks.
(Dye Penetrant) Ryan et al. (2006)
Location of flaws must already be known in order to further assess Hellier (2001);
Magnetic Particle Near surface flaws
damage. Ryan et al. (2006)
Radiographic Welding cracks, voids, Large and hazardous equipment. Requires high level of expertise. Hellier (2001);
Testing separations, inclusions Cannot directly determine depth of flaws. Ryan et al. (2006)
Cracks, loss of cross sec- Less effective for brittle materials, irregular shapes, or very thin Fuchs et al. (1998);
Ultrasonic Testing
tion, member thickness materials. Hellier (2001)
Robotic Inspection Various structural defects High cost of equipment. Lengthy setup time required. Oh et al. (2009)
Depends on material conductivity and chosen test frequency to Hellier (2001);
Eddy Current Near surface flaws
provide accurate results. Ryan et al. (2006)

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 Sangwook Lee, Niko Kalos, and Do Hyoung Shin

• Eddy Current: Eddy currents are created through a process An email was sent out to bridge management departments in
called electromagnetic induction. An alternating electric each state DOT and courteously requested them to send their
current is applied to a small coil which creates a fluctuating latest bridge inspection manuals or name the national standards
magnetic field. When this field comes in contact with a used for this purpose if they do not maintain their own inspection
conducting material, such as a steel member, eddy currents manuals. Based on all received answers, it turned out that 30
are induced in the material. When structural flaws are states have their own bridge inspection manuals and 22 states use
present the eddy currents are disrupted (Hellier, 2001). national standards published from FHWA or AASHTO. Four
Table 2 illustrates the areas for application, as well as known state DOTs indicated that they were currently working on their
limitations or problems, for each steel NDT method discussed own inspection manuals.
above. From Table 3, state bridge inspection manuals are relatively
new, with an average age of less than five years. The oldest
4. Analysis of State Bridge Inspection Manuals manual belongs to West Virginia with an age of 15 years.
Arizona, Arkansas, Minnesota, and Tennessee have the youngest
This section is intended to provide general background and manuals, which were published in 2011. The primary objective
clarify the extent of coverage of NDT application criteria in state of DOT inspection manuals is to provide an overall program
bridge inspection manuals. Table 3 shows a comprehensive description to people involved in bridge inspection. The manual
summary of each state bridge inspection manual and if includes the details of the state’s inspection procedures, typical
statements on NDT technologies appear in the manual. maintenance activities, instructions on recording data in the

Table 3. State Bridge Inspection Manuals

Manual publication Bridge inspection Does the manual have a Does the manual address the
No. States Comment
year manual separate NDT section? application of NDT methods?
1 Alabama 2002 Yes No No
Relying on
2 Alaska No
FHWA & AASHTO
3 Arizona 2011 Yes No No
4 Arkansas 2011 Yes No No
5 California 2008 Yes No No
Relying on
6 Colorado No
FHWA & AASHTO
7 Connecticut 2001 Yes No Yes
District of
8 No Under development
Columbia
9 Delaware 2008 Yes No No
10 Florida 2007 Yes No No
Relying on
11 Georgia No
FHWA & AASHTO
12 Hawaii 2008 Yes
13 Idaho 2010 Yes No No
Relying on
14 Illinois No
FHWA & AASHTO
15 Indiana 2010 Yes Yes Yes
Relying on
16 Iowa No
FHWA & AASHTO
17 Kansas 2007 Yes No No
18 Kentucky 2009 Yes No No
19 Louisiana 2009 Yes No No
20 Maine No Under development
21 Maryland No Under development
22 Massachusetts 1998 Yes
Relying on
23 Michigan No
NHI & AASHTO
24 Minnesota 2011 Yes No No
Inspection manual is
25 Mississippi Yes internal document and not
available for circulation.
26 Missouri 2000 Yes No No

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 Non-Destructive Testing Methods in the U.S. for Bridge Inspection and Maintenance

Table 3. (Continued)
Manual publica- Bridge inspec- Does the manual have a Does the manual address the
No. States Comment
tion year tion manual separate NDT section? application of NDT methods?
27 Montana No Relying on FHWA
28 Nebraska 2010 Yes No Yes
29 Nevada No Under development
Relying on
30 New Hampshire No
FHWA & NHI
31 New Jersey No Relying on FHWA
Relying on
32 New Mexico No
FHWA & AASHTO
33 New York 1997 Yes No Yes
34 North Carolina 2010 Yes No Yes
35 North Dakota 1997 Yes No No
36 Ohio 2010 Yes No No
37 Oklahoma 2010 Yes No No
38 Oregon 2009 Yes No No
39 Pennsylvania 2010 Yes No Yes
40 Puerto Rico No
Relying on
41 Rhode island No
FHWA & AASHTO
Relying on
42 South Carolina No
NHI & AASHTO
Relying on
43 South Dakota No
FHWA & AASHTO& NHI
44 Tennessee 2011 Yes No No
45 Texas 2002 Yes No Yes
Federal Regulations (CFR)
46 Utah No
Guidelines & AASHTO
47 Vermont No Relying on FHWA
Relying on
48 Virginia No
FHWA & AASHTO
49 Washington 2010 Yes No Yes
50 West Virginia 1996 Yes No No
Relying on
51 Wisconsin No
FHWA & AASHTO
52 Wyoming 2006 Yes No No

agency’s BMS system, and quality control and assurance i.e. how to report and categorize structural defect data properly,
policies. Also, the state’s policies on safety, inspection frequency, how to handle traffic during an inspection, inspection report
and load rating methods are outlined in detail. requirements, and so on. Almost every manual specifies the
The organization and required qualifications of the bridge FHWA 2006 Bridge Inspector’s Reference Manual and the 1991
inspection unit is also outlined in several manuals. Typically, Bridge Inspector’s Training Manual 90 as an additional resource
inspection teams consist of a leader and members. The leader for inspectors, hinting that most states rely on federal criteria for
must have several years of experience and is required to have NDT guidance and specifications.
taken several instructional courses on bridge inspection, which Eight states explicitly mentioned NDT methods in their
are facilitated federally by the FHWA or by the state in some manuals. Most of these states only briefly mentioned specific
cases. Each team reports to a management engineer who is situations in which NDT methods are effective or necessary.
typically required to be licensed by the state. All field personnel Only Indiana DOT (INDOT) had a dedicated NDT section in
must undergo extensive training before being allowed to inspect their manual, which described methods, application areas, and
any component of a bridge system. procedures in detail. The summary of the statements related to
With regards to NDT methods, most state agencies’ bridge NDT criteria from these manuals are presented below.
inspection manuals do not directly address the types and • Indiana DOT: This manual addresses a wide range of NDT
applications of NDT methods. This may mean that NDT techniques in great detail, providing guidance on application
inspection work is done primarily by outside contractors in those areas and limitations of each technique. The NDT methods
states. However, the primary purpose of these manuals is to covered in the manual include: thermography, ground-
provide general instructions and requirements of inspection staff, penetrating radar, acoustic emission, covermeters, rebound

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 Sangwook Lee, Niko Kalos, and Do Hyoung Shin

hammer, impact echo, penetration, half-cell method, particle and magnetic-particle inspection techniques are used
ultrasonic, liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, and to verify the crack. The manual also provides instructions on
monitoring systems. The manual specifies if each method how to use and interpret results from these two methods, and
can be used on concrete, steel, or timber. Also, the desired cautions that the magnetic particle method requires a
types of defects, information, or material properties that they qualified inspector to be used.
method is used to return is described. The manual notes that • North Carolina DOT: This manual only mentions the
in most situations the inspector must properly interpret raw ultrasonic test. All pins and forged on a truss must be
data from these methods to make accurate conclusions about ultrasonically tested, to check for fatigue cracks, measure the
the integrity of a member or material, and that in certain pin lengths, and thickness of the bar fashioned around the
situations NDT methods can provide false data. pins. Additionally, ultrasonic testing of trusses is to be
• Nebraska DOT: Some NDT method applications are performed every two years. No limitations of the ultrasonic
described briefly. For instance, pins in steel stringers or method are discussed. However, the manual refers the reader
girders that appear to be damage should be further to the FHWA 2006 Bridge Inspector’s Reference Manual for
investigated internally using ultrasound methods. more information.
Additionally, routine bridge inspections of concrete decks • Washington DOT: The manual states that NDT methods
should include the use of a delamination detector such as must be used in certain situations, and that the agency will
chain drag or hammer sounding to locate the defective deck determine the most cost effective method for extreme or
area. No statements about the limitations of NDT methods unusual defects. The manual states that dye-penetrant testing
appear in the manual. is an acceptable method for establishing the limits of a crack,
• Connecticut DOT: This manual describes the application of and magnetic or ultrasonic methods can resolve flaws not
some NDT methods by briefly mentioning applications and apparent visually. Additionally, ultrasonic testing can be
limitations of particular methods. For instance, radiography used for pin inspection in steel bridges. The manual cautions
techniques can be used to inspect welding defects that fall that NDT methods can generate varying degrees of accuracy
within the sensitivity range of the technique. The manual and reliability of data.
does not specify this sensitivity range. Additionally, magnetic
particle inspection is used for detecting surface cracks on From this analysis, it was clear that dye-penetrant, the
heavy weldments and assemblies, and the test provides a magnetic methods, and ultrasonic testing are common and well
permanent record of the defects. Dye-penetrant easily detects established NDT methods for bridge inspections in most states.
surface and fatigue cracks on welding, and the results of the All of the state manuals with NDT information in them
test are quickly interpreted. Ultrasonic inspection is excellent contained statements about these methods. Additionally, to
for detecting subsurface discontinuities on welds, but requires overcome limitations of individual NDT methods, they are
expert interpretation. Further, dye penetration, magnetic frequently used in combination. For example, a dye-penetrant
particle, or ultrasonic testing shall be used to confirm the test could rapidly locate a crack and establish its dimensions,
existence of all suspected cracks. then and ultrasonic test could resolve the extent of the crack in
• Pennsylvania DOT: This manual contains several short great detail. The results of a dye-penetrant test and a magnetic
statements about some NDT applications. It stipulates that method are easily interpreted because they are so visual. This
for damage caused by vehicle impact, shall be inspected makes them very powerful tools for routine or otherwise
using ultrasonic or magnetic particle techniques. common inspections, but their insufficient flaw detection far
Additionally, the manual describes that dye-penetrant or away from the surface of a member prohibits them from being
ultrasonic testing is used whenever cracking is suspected. exceptional NDT methods. The ultrasonic method is arguably
• Texas DOT: This manual mentions some NDT applications the simplest of the acoustic methods, and explains why it appears
and limitations. The manual states that, potential cracks at so frequently in the manuals.
the ends of welded cover plates are often inspected by It was found that many states lacked explicit descriptions of
radiographic methods, cracks in pins are best inspected by NDT applications and often referenced the reader to documents
ultrasonic techniques, subsurface inclusions may be found published by FHWA instead. It seems clear that many states rely
by magnetic methods, and cracks adjacent to fillet welds at on federal materials for training and information on NDT
tee-joints are typically inspected with dye-penetrant testing. methods for their bridge inspection programs. This enhances the
Additionally, the manual states that one method alone may importance of the NDT methods that appear in the 2006 Bridge
not be sufficient to properly inspect and assess damage. The Inspector’s Reference Manual as the primary options of
manual refers the reader to FHWA’s Bridge Inspectors detecting structural flaws for state agencies.
Training Manual 90, where NDT methods are covered in State agencies tend to avoid describing the more complex
more detail. NDT methods in their manuals, such as nuclear methods and the
• New York DOT: The manual states that when inspectors neutron probe. More complex methods tend to be expensive and
visually detect a suspected crack in a steel structure, the dye- require a high degree of operator expertise to be used properly.

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 Non-Destructive Testing Methods in the U.S. for Bridge Inspection and Maintenance

When these NDT techniques are required, it can be significantly pp. 1-5.
less expensive for the state to use an outside contractor to Breen, R., Brown, T. M., Collins, T. J., Dillworth, B., Garlich, M.,
perform the inspection work. Also, the appearance of novel NDT Kaderbek, S., O’Toole, M. A., Stromberg, D., and Triandafilou, N.
(2010). Indiana bridge inspection manual, Indiana Department of
methods was very limited, seemingly because these methods
Transportation, Indianapolis, IN.
need more time to be proven and reliable to many state agencies. Celaya, M., Nazarian, S., Rao, C., and Von Quintus, H. (2010).
Thus, more work must be done to demonstrate the capabilities “Delamination detection of HMA airport pavements with NDT
and feasibility of novel techniques to state policy makers and devices.” FAA Worldwide Airport Technology Transfer Conference,
agencies. April 21, 2010, Atlantic City, NJ.
Chotickai, P. (2001). Acoustic emission monitoring of prestressed bridge
5. Conclusions girders with premature concrete deterioration, MSc Thesis,
University of Texas, Austin, TX.
Dekelbab, W., Al-Wazeer, A., and Harris, B. (2008). History lessons
It is critical for state agencies to inspect bridges of their own
from the National Bridge Inventory, FHWA-HRT-08-004, Vol. 71,
and maintain them in an acceptable level for the safety of the FHWA, U.S. Department of Transportation.
public. For this purpose, many NDT methods have been Denzine, A. F. and Reading, M. S. (1996). “Industrial corrosion and
developed as a tool to help facilitate bridge management in the corrosion control technology: A critical comparison of corrosion
U.S. This paper reviewed total 25 NDT methods, 16 for concrete monitoring techniques used in industrial applications.” Kuwait
and 9 for steel, but found that each method has some drawbacks Institute for Scientific Research, pp. 511-518.
and limitations. This finding is also consistent with comments on FHWA (2004). Conditions and performance, FHWA, U.S. Department
NDT methods made by ASCE/AASHTO joint group (2009). of Transportation, <http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/2004cpr/pdfs/
chap15.pdf> (Accessed October 13, 2011).
The major findings obtained from the study of state bridge
FHWA (2009). Condition of U.S. highway bridges: 1990-2009, FHWA,
inspection manuals can be listed as follows. U.S. Department of Transportation, <http://www.bts.gov/current_
• Bridge inspection manuals: It was found that 30 states have topics/national_and_state_bridge_data/html/bridges_us.html> (Accessed
their own bridge inspection manuals, representing 58%. But, October 13, 2011).
the number of states addressing the use of NDT methods in Fuchs, P. A., Clark, A. V., Lozev, M. G., Halabe, U., Klinkhachorn, P.,
their manuals clearly was merely eight. This figure is Petro, S., and GangaRao, H. (1998). “Ultrasonic instrumentation for
somewhat disappointing since it was expected that many measuring applied stress on bridges.” Journal of Nondestructive
state agencies address the types of NDT methods and their Evaluation, Vol. 17, pp.141-152.
Gu, P., Carter, P., and Beaudoin, J. J. (1996). “Validation of half-cell
application procedures and situations to adapt them for their
potential data from bridge decks.” Construction Repair, Vol. 10,
local conditions. pp. 18-20.
• Description of NDT methods: There are many NDT methods Hartle, R. A. (1991). Bridge inspector’s training manual 90, FHWA,
available to DOT inspection groups in the U.S. However, U.S. Department of Transportation.
most DOTs have application procedures for only a handful. Hawk, H. (1999). BRIDGIT: User-friendly approach to bridge
Based on the states which have their own material on NDT management, Transportation Research Circular: Transportation
methods, dye-penetrant, magnetic methods, and ultrasonic Research Board, Washington, D.C., No. 498.
testing are commonly used for many types of inspections, Hellier, C. (2001). Handbook of nondestructive evaluation, McGraw-
Hill, Columbus, OH.
due to the simplicity and reliability of these methods. To
Huston, D., Hu, J. Q., Maser, K., Weedon, W., and Adam, C. (2000).
overcome individual limitations, inspectors typically use “GIMA Ground penetrating radar system for monitoring concrete
several NDT methods in combination to properly categorize bridge decks.” Journal of Applied Geophysics, Vol. 43, pp. 139-146.
or acquire additional data on a structural flaw or defect. Jaeger, B. J., Sansalone, M. J., and Poston, R. W. (1997). “Using impact-
Additionally, when very expensive or highly complex NDT echo to assess tendon ducts.” Concrete International, Vol.19, No. 2,
methods are required, state agencies are likely to use outside pp. 42-46.
contractors to complete the inspection work. Kotyaev, O., Shimada, Y., and Hashimoto, K. (2006). “Laser-based non-
• INDOT bridge inspection manual: It should be noted that destructive detection of inner flaws in concrete with the use of lamb
waves.” European Conference for Non Destructive Testing,
only INDOT manual maintained a separate section to
September 25-29, Berlin, Germany.
describe NDT methods in detail among all states. It means Li, Y. S., Kim, Y., Jung, S., Song, H., and Lee, S. (2007). “Application
that the inspection manual may more reflect local conditions of steel thin film electrical resistance sensor for in-situ corrosion
than any other states on how, when, and where NDT monitoring.” Sensors and Actuators B, Vol. 120, pp. 368-377.
methods are applied. Liu, L. P. and Yeh, L. P. (2011). “Spectral tomography of concrete
structures based on impact echo depth spectra.” NDT&E
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