6.

Hormonal control of the male

and female reproductive system

Musenge M. E.
(21/09/2020)
Outline
1. Functional anatomy
2. Gametogenesis
3. Hormones of reproductive system and their functions
4. Sexual response
5. Disorders of reproductive system
6. Sexual determination
Anatomy of male reproductive system
• Male reproductive system comprises 2 testes, ducts
(epididymides, ductus deferentia, and urethra), accessory glands
(seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands), and
supporting structures (scrotum and penis)
• Testes and epididymides where sperm cells develop are located
in the scrotum outside the bodycavity
• Ductus deferentia emanate from testes into the pelvis, where
they join the ducts of the seminal vesicles to form the ampullae
• Extensions of ampullae, the ejaculatory ducts, pass via prostate
and empty into prostate, membranous and penile urethrae
• Via urethrae, the exits from the pelvis to the outside of the body
Sagittal section of male pelvis showing male
reproductive structures
Scrotum
• Scrotum contains the testes and is divided into two internal
compartments by an incomplete connective tissue septum
• Externally, scrotum is marked in the midline by an irregular
ridge, the raphe, which continues posteriorly to the anus and
anteriorly onto the inferior surface of the penis
• Outer layer of the scrotum includes the skin, superficial
fascia, and the dartos muscle
 Testes
• Testes are small ovoid organs, each
about 4–5 cm long
• Outer part of each testis is tunica
albuginea whose connective tissue
enters the testis and forms incomplete
septa
• The septa divide each testis into about
300–400 cone-shaped lobules
• Substance of testis between the septa
includes 2 types of tissue:
i. Seminiferous tubules (exocrine testes)
in which sperm cells develop
ii. Loose connective tissue stroma
surrounds the tubules and contains
clusters of interstitial cells (Leydig
cells) which secrete testosterone
(endocrine testes)
 Sperm cell development
• Cross section of a mature
seminiferous tubule reveals the
various stages of spermatogenesis
• Tight junctions between the
sustentacular cells form a blood-
testes barrier, which isolates the
sperm cells from the immune
system
• Seminiferous tubules contain 2
types of cells, germ cells and
sustentacular (Sertoli cells)
Testosterone
• Testosterone is produced by interstitial cells and passes into the
sustentacular cells and binds to receptors
• Combination of testosterone with the receptors is required for the
sustentacular cells to function normally
• Also, testosterone is converted to 2 other steroids in the
sustentacular cells: dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and oestrogen
• Sustentacular cells also secrete androgen-binding protein (ABP) into
the seminiferous tubules
• Testosterone and DHT bind to ABP and are carried along with other
secretions of the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis
• Oestradiol and DHT may be the active hormones that promote sperm
cell formation
 Gametogenesis
• Gametes are produced during meiosis I and II
• Function of meiosis: Production of 4 haploid (n) gametes from each diploid
oögonium (2n) or spermatogonium (2n)
• Differences between male and female gamete development
• Male
Continuous development and production of sperm from onset of puberty
Stem cells are retained
Sperm are motile and contain very little cytoplasm
• Female
The entire complement of dictyate primary oocytes are formed during development
with 10-20 continuing development during each ovarian cycle
Oocytes are surrounded by follicular cells – forms ovarian follicle
Stem cells are exhausted
Oocytes are among the largest cells and are non-motile
Spermatogenesis
• Sperm Production
• During development germ cells are produced
• Germ cells remain quiescent until puberty
Actions of hormones from pituitary, sertoli cells and Leydig
cells
• At puberty some spermatogonia will
Undergo mitosis continuously
Enter into meiosis: This ensures a continuous supply of
spermatogonia
Spermatogenesis cont…
• Three stages of sperm production:
• Spermatocytogenesis
Produces secondary spermatocytes from spermatogoium
• Spermatidogenesis
Stage where meiosis I & II occur
Results in spermatid formation
• Spermiogenesis
• Final stage of sperm development
• Spermatid becomes a motile spermatozoa during spermiation
 Spermatogenesis
• Scattered between the sertoli cells are
smaller germ cells from which sperm cells are
derived
• Germ cells are arranged so that the most
immature cells are at the periphery and the
most mature cells are near the lumen of the
seminiferous tubules
• Spermatogonia are the most peripheral cells,
lie adjacent to the basement membrane of
the seminiferous tubules, and divide by
mitosis
• Some of the daughter cells produced from
these mitotic divisions remain spermatogonia
and continue to produce additional
spermatogonia
• Others divide through mitosis and
differentiate to form primary spermatocytes
 Meiosis
• Meiosis begins when the primary
spermatocytes divide
• Each primary spermatocyte passes
through the first meiotic division to
become 2 secondary spermatocytes
• Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes
a second meiotic division to produce
two even smaller cells called spermatids
• Each spermatid undergoes the last phase
of spermatogenesis called
spermiogenesis to form a mature sperm
cell (spermatozoon)
• Each spermatid develops a head,
midpiece, and a tail (flagellum)
Spermatozoon
• After their release into the
seminiferous tubules, the sperm
cells pass through the tubuli recti
to the rete testis
• From the rete testis, they pass
through the efferent ductules,
which leave the testis and enter
the epididymis to join the duct of
the epididymis
• The sperm cells then leave the
epididymis, passing through the
ductus epididymis, ductus
deferens, ejaculatory duct, and
urethra to reach the exterior of
the body
 Male urethra
• Male urethra is about 20 cm long and extends from the urinary bladder to
the distal end of the penis
• Urethra is a passageway for both urine and male reproductive fluids
• Urethra is divided into three parts: the prostatic part, the membranous
part, and the spongy part
• Prostatic urethra is connected to the bladder and passes through the
prostate gland
• Fifteen to 30 small ducts from the prostate gland and the two ejaculatory
ducts empty into the prostatic urethra
• Membranous urethra is the shortest part of the urethra and extends from
the prostate gland through the perineum, which is part of the muscular
floor of the pelvis
• Penile urethra is by far the longest part of the urethra and extends from
the membranous urethra through the length of the penis
 The Penis
• Penis comprises three columns of
erectile tissue, and engorgement of this
erectile tissue with blood causes the
penis to enlarge and become firm
• Penis is the male organ of copulation
through which sperm cells are
transferred from the male to the female
• Two of the erectile columns form the
dorsum and sides of the penis and are
called the corpora cavernosa
• The third column, the corpus
spongiosum
Seminal vesicles Prostate gland
• Prostate gland (PG) consists of both glandular and
• Seminal vesicles are sac-
muscular tissue and is about the size and shape of
shaped glands located next a walnut; that is, about 4 cm long and 2 cm wide
to the ampullae of the
ductus deferentia • It is dorsal to the symphysis pubis at the base of
the urinary bladder, where it surrounds the
• Each gland is about 5 cm prostatic urethra and the 2 ejaculatory ducts
long and tapers into a short • PG is composed of a fibrous connective tissue
duct that joins the ductus capsule containing distinct smooth muscle cells
deferens to form the and numerous fibrous partitions, also containing
ejaculatory duct smooth muscle, that radiate inward toward the
• Seminal vesicles have a urethra
capsule containing fibrous • Covering these muscular partitions is a layer of
connective tissue and columnar epithelial cells that form saccular
smooth muscle cells dilations into which the columnar cells secrete
prostatic fluid
Seminal fluid components, function and gland
Hormones of the male reproductive system
Spermatogenesis hormonal control flow chart
 Sexual response in males
• Processes in male sexual act: Erection, Lubrication, Emission, and
Ejaculation
• Psychical stimuli lead to excitation of corresponding centers in limbic
system
• Physical sexual stimulation cause afferent impulse through pudendal
nerve integrated in sacral segment
• Then afferent impulses via nervi erigentes from pelvic parasympathetic
nerve spread to penis and cause dilation of penile arterioles
• Arterial blood builds up under high pressure in erectile tissue and venous
outflow occluded
• Thus, erectile tissue balloon up, penis become hard and elongated
• Same parasympathetic impulses that cause erection also stimulate
urethral and bulbo-urethral glands to secrete mucous that lubricate
during intercourse
 Sexual response in males cont…
• When sexual stimulation becomes extremely intense, reflex centres of
spinal cord (L1-2) send sympathetic impulses via hypogastric plexus
that cause contraction of vas deference, ampulla, prostate and lastly
seminal vesicle
• Hence, semen emitted into internal urethra
• After this afferent signals via pudendal nerve cause sympathetic
stimulation and efferent signals from sacral sigment of spinal cord via
hypogastric plexus lead to contraction of internal genital organs that
cause rhythmic increase in pressure of internal urethra from outside
• This provides ejaculation of semen from internal urethra into deep
vagina
• Extremely pleasurable sensations felt during emission and ejaculation,
are referred to as male orgasm (male climax)
• Disorders of
erection
Erectile
dysfunction
Premature
ejaculation
Prolonged
ejaculation/an
orgasmia
Priapism
 Female reproductive system anatomy

• Female reproductive organs

Ovaries
Uterine tubules
Uterus
Vagina
‘External genital organs’
‘Mammary glands’
‘Supporting ligaments’
 Gametogenesis Ovary histology
• Oogenesis (Meiosis in
females)
• Follicle development
• Each month one follicle
develop into a secondary
oocyte released via ovulation
• About 500 released during
reproductive life (from a
potential of 400,000-500,000
primary oocytes)
 Oogenesis cont..
• Oogenesis results in formation of secondary oocyte which is released during
ovulation
If no fertilization occurs, meiosis II will not occur
• Stages of oogenesis
Oocytogenesis
Forms oögonia
During foetal development starting at week 10 and completing around birth
Results in formation of primary oocytes
Ootidogenesis
Results in the formation of secondary oocytes
These are dictyate in prophase I
Formation of ovum (if fertilization occurs)
Maturation of follicle and oocyte
 Ovarian cycle (Follicular phase)
• Ovarian follicle (immature oocyte-actual cell undergoing meiosis)
• Surrounding cells: Follicle cells, after proliferation into several layers: Granulosa
cells-connected to oocyte via gap junction (supply of ions, nutrients and signaling
molecules)
• Layers of connective tissue gives rise to Thecal cells: synthesize androgens-
Granulosa cells convert into oestrogens, and secretion of glycoproteins forming Zona
Pellucida
• Ovarian cycle – Luteal phase
• After ovulation – Granulosa and Thecal cells form corpus luteum secreting
progesterone and small amounts of oestrogen
• If no fertilization occurs – degeneration after 10 days (corpus albicans)
• If fertilization occurs – embryonal hormones cause continued secretion of
progesterone for 3 months (then placenta continues progesterone production)
Maturation and fertilization of oocyte
Gametogenesis
Main phases of the menstrual cycle
Mechanism of action of oestrogen
 Menstrual cycle cont…
• Hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis controls the required physiologic changes that occur
both in the ovaries and in the uterus during menstrual cycle
• Menstrual Cycle
On average lasts 28 days (ranges 24 – 35 days)
Begin with the removal of the endometrium and release of FSH by the anterior pituitary
• Ovarian cycle
Development of ovarian follicle
Production of hormones
Release of ovum during ovulation
• Uterine cycle
Removal of endometrium from prior uterine cycle
Preparation for implantation of embryo under the influence of ovarian hormones
Menstrual cycle cont…
• Three phases of the ovarian cycle
Follicular phase
Ovulation phase
Luteal phase
• Three phases of the uterine cycle
Menses
Proliferative Phase
Secretory Phase
• These ovarian and uterine phases are intimately linked
together by the production and release of hormones
Hormonal control of ovarian cycle
Hormonal control of uterine cycle
Female reproductive PGY putting it all together
Pituitary-gonadal axis
Female sexual response
• Processes in female sexual act: Stimulation, Erection, Lubrication, and
Climax
• Psychical stimuli lead to excitation of corresponding centers in limbic
system
• Physical sexual stimulation cause afferent impulse via pudendal nerve
integrated in sacral segment
• Parasympathetic signals that pass via nervi erigenes dilate arteries of
erectile tissue in introitus and clitoris
• Hence, blood accumulates in erectile tissue
• Same parasympathetic signals also pass to Bartholin’s glands beneath
labia minora and vaginal epithelium that cause them to secrete
mucus, which is essential for massaging action
• Then during climax perineal muscles contract rhythmically
 Fertilization effects
• If fertilization occurs:
• Uterine endometrium is maintained by
First the release of progesterone from the corpus luteum,
then the release of hCG which maintains the corpus luteum until the 7th week,
From 7th week on, placenta produces progesterone which continues to
maintain the endometrium and the corpus luteum degenerates
Placenta also produces estrogen and progesterone which blocks GnRH
oOestrogen is also involved in breast development
oProgesterone is also involved in uterine maintenance and relaxation
Placenta also produces hPL
Implicated in breast development and milk production
Most important role in foetal nutrition by altering maternal glucose and fatty
acid metabolism
 Fertilization effects cont…
• Changes which occur to allow parturition:
• Increasing levels of CRH from the placenta a few weeks prior to delivery
Early deliveries have been linked to early elevated levels of CRH
During delivery
progesterone levels drop off
Oxytocin levels rise
o Oxytocin receptors on the uterus are upregulated during gestation
Inhibin levels increase
o Relax the cervix and ligaments of the pelvis
o Allows for increased stretch of the cervix which triggers additional oxytocin which
triggers stronger uterine contractions which increase stretch of the cervix which
triggers oxytocin which triggers stronger uterine contractions which increases stretch
of the cervix which increases oxytocin release which increases uterine contractions
which increases stretch on cervix which…
Gender determination
Chromosomes determine gender
23 donated by egg (n)
23 donated by sperm (n)
Syngamy
The fusion of gametes to form a zygote
Consists of;
 Plasmogamy
 union of cell membranes and cytosol
 Karyogamy
 union of genetic material
 Autosomes: 44 or 22 pair
 Sex chromosomes: 2 or 1 pair
 XX chromosomes = female
 XY chromosomes = male
 Gender determination
• Non-disjunction during
meiosis I or II
• Monosomy
XO (no Y chromosome, or
second X), hence Turner’s
syndrome
Phenotypical female
 Gender determination cont…
• Non-disjunction during meiosis I or II
• Polyploidy
Incomplete separation of homologues during meiosis results in a zygote with too many
chromosomes
Regarding the sex chromosomes, it may be:
• XXY (47 chromosomes total)-Klinefelter syndrome: Male sex organs; unusually small
testes, sterile; breast enlargement and other feminine body characteristics; normal
intelligence
• XYY
Jacob’s syndrome: Individuals are somewhat taller than average and often have below
normal intelligence
XXYY – Male and very rare (48 chromosomes)
• XXX (Trisomy X): Individuals are female normal, undistinguishable except for by
karyotype
 Gender determination cont…
• Embryo exhibits gender bipotential
• Around week seven of foetal development the SRY (Sex-determining Region of Y
Y chromosome) gene becomes activated
• The SRY gene directs the bipotential gonads
The absence of SRY on the X chromosome causes the gonads to develop into
ovaries
Ovaries then produce further gender biased hormones
The presence of SRY gene and its products causes the gonads to descend and
develop into testes
Testes then produce further gender biased hormones
Translocation of the SRY gene to X chromosome results in an XX individual
(genotype) but with XY characteristics (phenotype)
Effects of SRY on sex organ development
Indirect effects of SRY gene on genital development
References
• Barrett E. Kim, Barman M. Susan, Boitano Scott and Brooks L.
Heddwen, (2016). Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology,
24rd Ed., San Francisco: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
• Hall, J.E. (2015). Guyton and Hall Text Book of Medical
Physiology, 13th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier Inc.
ISBN: 9780323389587

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