Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry Matter is the substance, and energy is the mover of the substance.

Because this is so,

let’s take a brief detour to introduce the forms of energy the body uses as it does its
Chemistry -is the basis for how the body transforms and uses energy and for how our cells work.
use crucial molecules such as carbohydrates,lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Forms of Energy
-studies the nature of matter—how its building blocks are put together and how
they interact.  Chemical energy- is stored in the bonds of chemical substances. When the bonds are
broken, the (potential) stored energy is unleashed and becomes kinetic energy (energy
Matter - is the “stuff” of the universe. With some exceptions, it can be seen, smelled, and in action). For example, when gasoline molecules are broken apart in your
felt. More precisely, matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. automobile engine, the energy released powers your car. Similarly, the chemical
3 types of Matter energy harvested from the foods we eat fuels all body activities
 Electrical energy -results from the movement of charged particles. In your house,
1. Solids-such as bones and teeth, have a definite shape and volume. electrical energy is the flow of subatomic particles called electrons along the wiring.
2. Liquids- have a definite volume, but they conform to the shape of their container. In your body, an electrical current is generated when charged particles (called ions)
Examples of body liquids are blood plasma and the interstitial fluid that bathes all move across cell membranes. The nervous system uses electrical currents called
body cells nerve impulses to transmit messages from one part of the body to another
3. Gases -have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. The air we breathe is a  Mechanical energy- is energy directly involved in moving matter. When you pedal a
mixture of gases. bicycle, your legs provide the mechanical energy that turns the wheels. We can take
Changes in Matter this example one step further back: As the muscles in your legs shorten (contract),
they pull on your bones, causing your limbs to move (so that you can pedal the bike)
 Physical changes- do not alter the basic nature of a substance. Examples include  Radiant energy- travels in waves; that is, it is the energy of the electromagnetic
changes in state, such as ice melting to water and food being cut into smaller pieces. spectrum, which includes X rays, infrared radiation (heat energy), visible light, radio,
 Chemical changes -do alter the composition of the substance—often substantially. and ultraviolet (UV) waves. Light energy, which stimulates the waves cause sunburn,
Fermenting grapes to make wine and the digestion of food in the body are examples but they also stimulate our bodies to make vitamin D.
of chemical changes.
Energy from Conversion
Weight- is a measure of gravity pulling on mass
Energy converted from one type of energy to another
Energy- has no mass and does not take up space. It can be measured only by its effects on
matter. We commonly define energy as the ability to do work or to put matter into motion 1. Energy can be converted from one form to another easily. For instance, in a
speedboat, chemical energy from gasoline is transformed into mechanical energy that
 Kinetic Energy- when energy is actually doing work, is displayed in the constant propels the boat across water. Similarly, in the body, chemical energy from food is
movement of the tiniest particles of matter (atoms) as well as in larger objects, such stored in ATP and can be converted into electrical energy in nerves or mechanical
as a bouncing ball. energy in muscles.
 Potential Energy- when energy is inactive or stored
 2. Energy conversions are inefficient, with some energy being lost as heat to the positive charge of the protons, but their mass is so
environment. Although energy cannot be destroyed, the heat energy produced in these
small that it is usually designated as 0 amu.
conversions is unusable.
3. Demonstrating the inefficiency of energy conversions, placing a finger close to a lit -Protons and neutrons are heavy particles and have approximately the same mass (1
lightbulb shows that some electrical energy is lost as heat. atomic mass unit, or amu)
4. Overall, energy transformations occur in various systems such as machines and the
human body, with some energy lost as heat in the process. The electrical charge of a particle is a measure of its ability to attract or repel other
5. Heat energy is a byproduct of various energy conversions in the body, contributing to charged particles. Particles with the same type of charge (+ to+ or − to −) repel each
our high body temperature and influencing body functions. other, but particles with opposite charges (+ to −) attract each other.
6. Increased temperature leads to higher kinetic energy of particles in matter, which in Planetary and Orbital Models of an atom
turn speeds up chemical reactions within the body.
The planetary model of an atom portrays the atom as a miniature solar system in which the
Composition of Matter protons and neutrons are clustered at the center of the atom in the atomic nucleus. Because
 Elements- unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by the nucleus contains all the heavy particles, it is fantastically dense and positively charged.
ordinary chemical methods. Examples of elements include many commonly known The tiny electrons orbit around the nucleus in fixed, generally circular orbits, like planets
substances, such as oxygen, silver, gold, copper, and iron around the sun. But we can never determine the exact location of electrons at a particular time
 Atoms- Because all elements are unique, the atoms of each element differ from those because they jump around following unknown paths. So, instead of speaking of specific
of all other elements. We designate each element by a one- or two-letter chemical orbits, chemists talk about orbitals—regions around the nucleus in which electrons are
shorthand called an atomic symbol.
Atomic Structure Orbital model depicts the general location of electrons outside the nucleus as a haze of
Atoms can neither be crated nor destroyed (according to law of conservation of masss), negative charge referred to as the electron cloud . Regions where electrons are most likely to
however they can be divided into smaller particles: be found are shown by denser shading rather than by orbit lines.

Subatomic particles-which include protons, neutrons, and electrons. Even so, the old idea of 1. Electrons in an atom have freedom throughout the atom's volume and play a crucial role in
atomic indivisibility is still very useful because an atom loses the unique properties of its determining an atom's chemical properties and bonding abilities.
element when it is split into its component particles 2. The planetary model, although outdated, remains widely used for its simplicity and ease of
-atom’s subatomic particles differ in their mass, electrical charge, and position within the understanding in describing atomic structure.
atom 3. Hydrogen, as the simplest atom, consists of one proton and one electron, with the nucleus
 Protons (p∙)- have a positive charge represented as a lead ball at the center of a spherical atom, highlighting the vast empty space
 Neutrons (n0)- are uncharged, or neutral. within an atom and the concentration of mass in the nucleus.
 Electrons (e−) -bear a negative charge equal in strength to the 1. Atoms of different elements contain varying numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
2. Each atom has a unique composition of subatomic particles; for instance, hydrogen masses. Despite this difference, isotopes of an element share the same atomic number
consists of one proton and electron, while helium has two of each. and chemical properties.
2. The atomic weight of an element is usually close to the mass number of its most
3. The number of protons and electrons in atoms increases by one at each step, helping to
abundant isotope. For instance, hydrogen, with an atomic number of 1, has isotopes
identify elements based on atomic number and mass.
with atomic masses of 1, 2 (deuterium), and 3 (tritium). The atomic weight of
4. Light atoms tend to have equal numbers of protons and neutrons, while heavier atoms have hydrogen (1.008) indicates the prevalence of its lightest isotope in significant
more neutrons than protons. amounts compared to its heavier isotopes.

5. Identifying elements relies on understanding their atomic number, mass number, and 1. Radioactive decay, also known as decay, is similar to a sustained explosion where alpha or
atomic weight, which collectively offer a comprehensive view of each element. beta particles and gamma rays are emitted from an atom's nucleus, causing damage to living
cells.
2. Alpha particles have the least penetrating power among the emitted particles.
Atomic Number
3. The heavier isotopes of certain atoms, known as radioisotopes, release energy to become
Each element is given a number, called its atomic number, that is equal to the number of more stable due to the weaker "glue" holding their atomic nuclei together.
protons its atoms contain. Atoms of each element contain a different number of protons from
the atoms of any other element; hence, its atomic number is unique. Because the number of 4. The reason for this process in heavier isotopes is complex and related to the weakening of
protons is always equal to the number of electrons, the atomic number indirectly also tells us atomic nuclei bonding.
the number of electrons that atom contains.
5. Radiation primarily damages atoms indirectly by sending electrons flying along its path,
causing the actual damage.

Atomic Mass Number 6. Radioisotopes play a crucial role in tagging biological molecules for tracking in the body,
aiding in medical diagnoses and treatments.
of any atom is the sum of the masses of all the protons and neutrons contained in its nucleus.
(Remember, the mass of an electron is so small that we ignore it.) Because hydrogen has one 7. PET scans utilize radioisotopes, and a radioisotope of iodine is used for scanning the
proton and no neutrons in its nucleus, its atomic number and mass number are the same: 1. thyroid gland in patients with suspected tumors.
Helium, with two protons and two neutrons, has a mass number of 4. The mass number is
8. Radioisotopes like radium, cobalt, and others are employed to target and eliminate
written as a superscript to the left of the atomic symbol
localized cancers.
Atomic Weight and Isotopes
1. Atomic weight and atomic mass are not always equal due to the presence of isotopes
Molecules and Compounds
in almost all elements. Isotopes are variants of atoms with the same number of
protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons, resulting in different atomic Molecules- if two or more atoms of the same element bond, or become chemically linked
together a molecule is produced
-In this example of a chemical reaction, the reactants (the atoms taking part in the reaction) only the electrons in the outermost shell called the valence shell are important for an atom's
are indicated by their atomic symbols, and the product (the molecule formed) is indicated by bonding behavior.
a molecular formula that shows its atomic makeup. The chemical reaction is shown as a
3. **Valence Shell and Chemical Reactivity**
chemical equation
The valence shell of an atom determines its chemical behavior, with the valence electrons
Compound- is a two or more different type of element
being critical for bonding. The rule of eights states that atoms tend to interact to achieve eight
-Thus, a molecule of methane is a compound, but a molecule of hydrogen gas is not—it is electrons in their valence shells for stability. Exceptions include the first shell which is stable
instead called molecular hydrogen. Compounds always have properties quite different from with 2 electrons. An atom with a full valence shell is chemically inactive, while those with
those of the atoms making them up, and it would be next to impossible to determine the less than eight electrons will bond through gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.
atoms making up a compound without analyzing it chemically. Sodium chloride is an
4. **Chemical Bond Formation**
excellent example of the difference in properties between a compound and its constituent
atoms (Figure 2.4). Sodium is a silvery white metal, and chlorine in its To achieve a stable state, atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons, resulting in the formation
of chemical bonds. Atoms can be chemically inert or reactive based on the number of
Chemical Bonds and Reactions
electrons in their valence shells. The interaction leading to chemical bonding requires the
 Chemical reactions- occur whenever atoms combine with or dissociate from other outermost electron shells of the atoms to overlap closely.
atoms. When atoms unite chemically, chemical bonds are formed.
Types Of Chemical Bonds
 Chemical bond- is not an actual physical structure, like a pair of handcuffs linking
two people together. Instead, it is an energy relationship that involves interactions Ionic bonds
between the electrons of the reacting atoms. Let’s consider the role electrons play in
forming bonds. 1. **Formation of Ionic Bonds**: Atoms form ionic bonds by transferring electrons, resulting
in the creation of charged particles known as ions. An atom becomes a negatively charged
Roles of Electrons anion when it gains an electron and a positively charged cation when it loses an electron. The
attraction between these opposite charges leads to the formation of stable ionic bonds.
1. **Electron Shells in Atoms**
2. **Example of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Formation**: The formation of sodium chloride
The orbits around the nucleus where electrons reside are known as electron shells, which
(common table salt) exemplifies ionic bonding. Sodium donates its valence electron to
are also referred to as energy levels. Atoms can have a maximum of seven electron shells,
chlorine to achieve stability. By doing so, sodium becomes a cation (Na+) and chlorine
numbered from 1 to 7 outward from the nucleus. Electrons closer to the nucleus are more
becomes an anion (Cl−), resulting in the creation of an ionic bond.
attracted due to its positive charge, while those farther away are less tightly held. The
outermost electron shell is crucial for interactions with other atoms. 3. **Stability Achieved through Ion Exchange**: Sodium achieves stability by becoming a
cation and losing an electron, whereas chlorine achieves stability by becoming an anion and
2. **Capacity and Filling of Electron Shells**
gaining an electron. This exchange of electrons between atoms leads to the formation of
Each electron shell has a specific capacity: the first shell can hold 2 electrons, the second up stable ionic compounds
to 8, and the third up to 18. Subsequent shells can accommodate even larger numbers of
electrons and are typically filled in order. Inner shell electrons do not participate in bonding,
4. **Ionic Compounds as Inorganic Chemicals**: Sodium chloride and similar compounds - A molecule's shape determines its interaction with other molecules, influencing the
formed through ionic bonding are classified as salts, which are a category of inorganic strength of electron attraction and resulting in either equal or unequal electron-pair sharing.
chemicals. These compounds are characterized by the transfer of electrons between atoms to
5. **Carbon Dioxide and Water Molecules:**
form stable ionic bonds.
- The linear structure of carbon dioxide balances the electron-pulling power of oxygen
Covalent bonds
atoms, resulting in equal electron sharing and a nonpolar molecule.
1. **Covalent Bonds and Sharing Electrons:**
- Water's V-shape causes unequal electron sharing, with oxygen attracting electrons more
- Atoms can achieve stability by sharing electrons in covalent bonds, instead of losing or strongly, leading to a polar molecule exhibiting slight negative and positive charges.
gaining them completely.
6. **Charge Distribution in Molecules:**
- Molecules with shared valence electrons are called covalent molecules, where atoms
- Due to the negative charge of electrons, unequal electron sharing in molecules results in
participate in forming covalent bonds.
charged ends.
- For instance, hydrogen can become stable by sharing its single electron with another
- Water molecules show a slightly negative end (δ−) near oxygen and a slightly positive end
hydrogen atom to form hydrogen gas.
(δ+) near hydrogen due to uneven electron distribution.
Hydrogen bonds
2. **Formation of Molecules through Covalent Bonds:**
1. Hydrogen bonds are weak bonds formed when a hydrogen atom bridges between "electron-
- Oxygen atoms can share pairs of electrons to form double bonds and create a molecule of hungry" nitrogen or oxygen atoms, not involving electrons like ionic or covalent bonds.
oxygen gas (O2). These bonds are vital in maintaining the structure of molecules like proteins and DNA.
- Carbon can share electrons with hydrogen atoms to form methane gas (CH4), ensuring the 2. Hydrogen bonding is common in water, allowing certain insects like water striders to walk
stability of all atoms through shared electrons. on water by treading lightly.
3. **Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Molecules:** 3. In addition to intermolecular bonding, hydrogen bonds also play a crucial role in
intramolecular bonding by helping to shape molecules in a special three-dimensional
- In nonpolar covalent molecules, electrons are shared equally between atoms, resulting in a
structure.
balanced electron distribution.
4. The fragility of hydrogen bonds highlights their essential function in preserving the
- Some molecules, like carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O), demonstrate unequal
structure of protein molecules, which are vital for body-building, and DNA, the carrier of
electron-pair sharing due to the molecular shape, leading to polar covalent molecules.
genetic information.
4. **Three-Dimensional Structure and Electron Sharing:**
Patterns of Chemical Reactions
- The three-dimensional shape of a molecule influences the electron distribution among
atoms.
Chemical reactions involve the making or breaking of bonds between atoms. The total Exchange reactions involve simultaneous synthesis and decomposition reactions; in other
number of atoms remains the same, but the atoms appear in new combinations. Most words, bonds are both made and broken. During exchange reactions, a switch is made
chemical reactions have one of the three recognizable patterns we describe next. between molecule parts (changing partners, so to speak), and different molecules are made.
Thus, an exchange reaction can be generally indicated as
Synthesis Reactions
AB + C S AC + B and AB + CD S AD + CB
Synthesis reactions occur when two or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger,
more complex molecule, which can be simply An exchange reaction occurs, for example, when ATP reacts with glucose and transfers its
end phosphate group (its full name is adenosine triphosphate; tri- = three) to glucose,
represented as
forming glucose-phosphate (Figure 2.10c). At the same time, the ATP becomes ADP,
A + B S AB adenosine diphosphate (di- = two). This important reaction, which occurs whenever glucose
enters a body cell, traps glucose inside the cell. Most chemical reactions are reversible. If
Synthesis reactions always involve bond formation. Because energy must be absorbed to chemical bonds can be made, they can be broken, and vice versa. Reversibility is indicated by
make bonds, synthesis reactions are energy-storing reactions. a double arrow in a chemical equation. When the arrows differ in length, the longer arrow
Synthesis reactions underlie all anabolic (building) activities that occur in body cells. They indicates the more rapid reaction or the major direction in which the reaction is proceeding.
are particularly important for growth and for repair of worn-out or damaged tissues. The For example, in the reaction
formation of a protein molecule by the joining of amino acids (protein building blocks) into A + B ∆ AB the reaction going to the right is occurring more rapidly, so over time AB will
long chains is a synthesis reaction (Figure 2.10a accumulate while A and B will decrease in amount. If the arrows are of equal length, the
Decomposition Reactions reaction is at chemical equilibrium. Thus, in

Decomposition reactions occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, A + B ∆ AB
atoms, or ions and can be indicated by AB S A + B Essentially, decomposition reactions are for each molecule of AB made, a molecule of AB is breaking down to release A and B
synthesis reactions in reverse. Bonds are always broken, and the products of these reactions
are smaller and simpler than the original molecules. As bonds are broken, chemical energy is
released.
Factors influencing the Rate of Chemical Reactions
As mentioned earlier, for the atoms in molecules to react chemically, their outermost electron
Decomposition reactions underlie all catabolic (destructive) processes that occur in body shells must overlap. In fact, for them to get close enough for this to happen, the particles must
cells; that is, they are reactions that break down molecules. Examples include the digestion of collide forcefully. Remember also that atoms move constantly because of their kinetic energy
foods into their building blocks and the breakdown of glycogen (a large carbohydrate —this is what drives collisions between particles. Several factors, including temperature,
molecule stored in the liver) to release glucose (Figure 2.10b) when the blood sugar level concentration of the particles, and size of the particles, influence the kinetic energy and,
starts to decline. hence, the speed of the particles and the force of collisions