Experiment 01
Objective
To verify the Bernoulli’s Theorem
Experimental Setup
Bernoulli’s theorem is applied on flow through a clear acrylic Venturi tube. The apparatus is to
be used with HB 100 Hydraulics Bench. The Venturi tube consists a 28 mm inside diameter pipe
and a 14 mm inside diameter throat of 21º inlet angle and a 10o outlet angle. Seven pressure
tapping points along the wall of the tube for connecting to the manometer. The water manometer
consists of 8 tubes (450 mm long) along with a white acrylic back plate for easy viewing, a top
air chamber and a bleed valve to vary the chamber pressure by means of a hand air pump. A total
head probe of stainless steel tube (1.9 mm inside diameter) which can be moved axially along the
Venturi tube. The total head tube is connected to manometer tube No. 7 by a hose pipe.
Fig. 1 Bernoulli's Theorem Apparatus
Theory:
Pipe:
A pipe is a tube that moves something from one place to another. It can carry things like water or
gas in plumbing, or data between programs in computers. It's also a tool for smoking, or a
musical instrument that makes sound when air is blown through it.
Pump:
A pump is a device used to move liquids or gases from one place to another. It works by creating
a difference in pressure that pushes the fluid through a pipe or hose.
Here are a few common types of pumps:
1. Water Pump: Used to move water from a well to a house or to drain water from a flooded area.
2. Fuel Pump: Moves fuel from the tank to the engine in vehicles.
3. Air Pump: Inflates objects like tires or balloons by forcing air into them.
4. Sump Pump: Removes water from areas that are prone to flooding, such as basements.
In general, pumps are essential for various applications where moving fluids is required.
Bernoulli’s Theory:
Bernoulli's principle, also known as Bernoulli's theorem, is a fundamental concept in fluid
dynamics. It states that for an incompressible, frictionless fluid flowing in a streamline, the total
mechanical energy of the fluid remains constant.
The principle is often expressed with the following equation:
In simpler terms, Bernoulli's principle means that when the speed of a fluid increases, its
pressure decreases, and vice versa. This principle helps explain various phenomena, such as how
airplanes generate lift, why a shower curtain gets sucked inward when you take a hot shower,
and how a venturi meter measures fluid flow.
Continuity Equation:
The continuity equation is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that describes the
conservation of mass in a flowing fluid. It states that for an incompressible fluid (one with
constant density), the mass flow rate must remain constant from one cross-section of a pipe or
channel to another.
Mathematically, the continuity equation can be expressed as:
In essence, if the cross-sectional area of the pipe decreases, the fluid velocity must increase to
maintain a constant flow rate, and if the area increases, the velocity must decrease. This principle
ensures that the mass of the fluid flowing through a pipe or channel is conserved.
What is head?
In fluid dynamics, "head" refers to the height of a fluid column that is equivalent to the energy or
pressure of the fluid. It is a way of expressing energy per unit weight of the fluid.
Here’s a breakdown of the types of head:
1. Head of Liquid:
This is the total height of the liquid column that represents the fluid’s total energy. It combines
all forms of head (static, pressure, and dynamic) to describe the energy content of the fluid in a
system.
2. Static or Pressure Head:
This represents the potential energy of the fluid due to its elevation. It is the height of the fluid
column measured from the reference point to the surface of the fluid. In a more specific sense,
static head refers to the pressure head, which is the height of the fluid column that corresponds to
the fluid pressure at a given point.
3. Dynamic or Velocity Head:
This represents the kinetic energy of the fluid due to its velocity. It is the height of the fluid
column that would be required to give the fluid its velocity.The total head in a fluid system is the
sum of the static head, dynamic head, and, in some cases, any additional head losses due to
friction or other factors.
Manometer:
A manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of a fluid. It often consists of a U-shaped
tube filled with a liquid (like mercury or water) and is used to gauge the pressure of gases or
liquids in a system.
Here are the main types of manometers:
1. U-Tube Manometer: This is the simplest type, consisting of a U-shaped tube with fluid inside.
Pressure differences between the two sides of the tube cause the fluid levels to vary, and the
difference in height between the two columns of fluid is used to measure the pressure.
2. Inclined Manometer: Similar to the U-tube manometer, but with one leg of the U-tube
inclined. This design allows for more precise measurements, especially for small pressure
differences.
3. Digital Manometer: This type uses electronic sensors to measure pressure and display the
result digitally. It provides a direct and often more accurate reading compared to traditional
liquid-filled manometers.
4. Differential Manometer: Measures the difference in pressure between two points. It can be
used to measure pressure drop across equipment like filters or valves.
Manometers are commonly used in various applications, including HVAC systems, laboratories,
and industrial processes, to ensure that systems are operating within the correct pressure ranges.
What is no-slip condition?
The no-slip condition is a principle in fluid dynamics that states that at the boundary between a
fluid and a solid surface, the fluid velocity is equal to the velocity of the solid surface. In other
words, the fluid "sticks" to the surface, meaning there is no relative motion between the fluid and
the solid.
This condition is crucial for understanding how fluids flow near surfaces and is fundamental in
the study of boundary layers, drag, and many other fluid dynamics phenomena.
For example, if you have water flowing over a stationary pipe, the no-slip condition implies that
the velocity of the water at the very surface of the pipe is zero because the pipe is stationary. The
velocity of the water increases as you move away from the pipe surface into the flow.
The no-slip condition helps in predicting how the fluid will behave in real-world scenarios,
including how it will interact with different surfaces and how it will affect the forces on those
surfaces.
Experimental Procedure
1. Set up the Bernoulli’s apparatus on the hydraulic bench. Ensure that the base is horizontal
it is necessary for accurate height measurement from manometers.
2. It is necessary that the rig outflow tube is positioned above the volumetric tank in order to
facilitate timed volume connections.
3. Connect the rig inlet to the bench flow supply, close the bench valve and the apparatus
flow control valve and start the pump. Gradually open the bench valve to fill it with
water.
4. Bleed all the air from the manometers.
5. Reading should be taken at three flow rates. Take first reading at maximum flow rate,
then reduce the volume flow rate to give the head difference at about 50 mm. Finally
repeat whole process for a third flow rate.
6. Take readings of the manometers when the levels have steadied.
7. Using stopwatch calculate the volumetric flow rate.
8. Measure the total head distribution by traversing the total pressure probe along the length
of test section.
Observations and Calculations
Diameters of different pressure points at venture tube are;
D1=28mm D2=21mm D3=14mm D4=16.8mm
D5=19.6mm D6=22.4mm D7=25.2mm D8=28mm
Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5
Hydraulic Bench Measuring Volume (L)
data Time (Sec)
Flow Rtae (m3/s)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
1 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Total Head (m)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
2 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Total Head (m)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
3 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Tapings
Total Head (m)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
4 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Total Head (m)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
5 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Total Head (m)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
6 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Total Head (m)
Area (m2)
Velocity (m/sec)
8 Velocity Head (m)
Pressure Head (m)
Total Head (m)
Specimen Calculations
Conclusion
Rubrics
CLO_1: To measure & analyze different unknowns i.e. velocity, Head, using Flow meters.
Criteria Excellent (4) Good (3) Fair (2) Poor (1) score
Instruments and Instruments and
Technical Some misuse or Instruments or
tools are used tools are mostly
Soundness / inefficiency in tools are misused
appropriately and used
performance instrument usage or ineffective
effectively appropriately
Data is
comprehensive, Data is mostly Data is
relevant, and comprehensive, incomplete,
Data is somewhat
accurately relevant, and irrelevant, or
Data Collection comprehensive
recorded. Data is accurately inaccurately
and and relevant.
effectively recorded. Data is recorded. Data
Presentation Data presentation
presented using mostly presentation
is adequate
appropriate effectively lacks clarity or
tables, graphs, presented coherence
and visuals
Analysis
demonstrates - Analysis
deep demonstrates
Analysis
understanding of understanding of Analysis lacks
addresses some
the data and the data and depth or
relevant aspects.
addresses all addresses most relevance.
Data Analysis Conclusions are
relevant aspects. relevant aspects. Conclusions are
somewhat
Conclusions Conclusions illogical or not
supported and
drawn are drawn are mostly supported by data
logical
logical, well- logical and
supported, and supported
aligned with data
Scoring Guide:
4: Excellent - Exceeds expectations; demonstrates exceptional proficiency and mastery.
3: Good - Meets expectations; demonstrates solid understanding and competency.
2: Fair - Partially meets expectations; some areas need improvement or refinement.
1: Poor - Does not meet expectations; significant deficiencies or lack of understanding.
