1.Why can humans not digest cellulose?
Ans. Cellulose is made up of over 1000 chains of unbranched glucose that are
stacked on top of each other, connected with Beta 1-4 glycosidic bonds. Human body
does not have the necessary enzymes to break down this type of bond and hence
cellulose cannot be digested by it.
2.How many disaccharides are possible combining two pyranose rings?
Ans. Pyranose Rings combine at OH and OH groups, two OH groups form glycosidic
linkage
Glycosidic Linkage: Linkage joining 2 monosaccharide molecules through an O
atom due to loss of a water molecule
3. Non reducing ends are approximately equal to the number of branch points for
large glycogen, also Reducing Ends Anomeric Methylation get undone upon hydrolysis
4.What is Mysentery?
Ans. The mesentery is a fold of membrane that attaches the intestine to the
abdominal wall and holds it in place. It supports and positions all the orgarns in
the abdomen. Mesenteric lymphadenitis is an inflammation of the lymph nodes in the
mesentery.
5.What is homeostasis. What are the normal conditions for homeostasis?
Ans. Homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, chemical, and social
conditions maintained by living systems. This is the condition of optimal
functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature
and fluid balance, being kept within certain pre-set limits
Normal Condn. 37 C body temp and 80-100mg/dL Blood Glucose while fasted
6.How does blood sugar vary after a meal?
Ans. Blood sugar is at a normal steady level when the body is fasted. After a meal
it shoots up to its highest value and gradually dies down to a slightly raised
values around 3 hours after the meal
7.What cells of pancreas secrete insulin and glucagon?
Ans. Beta cells of pancrease secrete insulin when blood sugar levels are high.
Insulin enhances uptake of glucoes from blood by most cells
Glucagon is secreted by Alpha Cells of Islets of Langerhans of Pancreas,
causing the liver to break down stored glycogen into
glucose which is then released into the blood stream
8. What are vesicles and their uses?
Ans. A small sac formed by a membrane and filled with liquid. Vesicles inside cells
move substances into or out of the cell. Vesicles made in the laboratory can be
used to carry drugs to cells in the body.
9. Difference between type 1 and 2 diabetes?
Ans. Type 1 the body has no insulin, whereas in type 2 diabetes, the cells stop
respoinding to insulin
10. Why do proteins fold back to their native structure in water?
Ans. In native structure, proteins have their hydrophobic residues on the inner
side. Now when placed in water, the hydrophobis residues again go back inside,
making the protein regain its native structure. Proteins are functional only in
their native structure
11.What percent of protein is unfolded at Tm?
Ans. At Tm, 50% of protein is unfolded. Protein unfolding is caused due to heat,
urea, GdnHcl etc.
12. What are Denaturing Agents?
A.s, Chemicals which cause proteins to unfold are called denaturing agents
13.What is Levinthal's Paradox?
Ans. Levinthal's paradox is that finding the native folded state of a protein by a
random search among all possible configurations can take an enormously long time.
Yet proteins can fold in seconds or less.
However protein folding is not random, but infact directed by local and non-local
interactions
14.What is Sickle Cell Anaemia?
Ans. In sickle cell anemia, some red blood cells look like sickles used to cut
wheat. These unusually shaped cells give the disease its name. Sickle cell anemia
is one of a group of inherited disorders known as sickle cell disease. It affects
the shape of red blood cells, which carry oxygen to all parts of the body.
It is caused by glu->val mutation
15. Most naturally occuring fatty acids have an unbranched chain of an even number
of carbon atoms
16. How is it determined whether a fatty acid will be solid or liquid at RT?
Ans. This depends on the acyl chain. If the acyl chain is all trans, good packing,
max vanderwaal, hence solid. If the acyl chain is brached i.e. having cis binds
then it will nit have goo dpacking and hence liquid at R.T.
IMP: Saturated Fatty Acids and Unsaturated Trans fatty acids are solid
at R.T.
17. What is a steroid?
Ans. A steroid is a biologically active organic compound with four rings (A, B, C,
D) arranged in a specific molecular configuration. They are synthetic derivatives
of testosterone. Different configurations at c17 generate different steroids
18. Why is cholestrol amphipathic?
Ans. It has both hydrophillic and hydrophobic parts, making it amphipathic. The
hydrophobic part is a polar hydroxyl group, and the hydrophillic part is the
steroid ring
Almost al cholestrol in the body is made, not obtained from diet, around 3000mg/day
19. CIS fats are better than trans fats
unsaturated fats are better than saturated fats
20. saponification number = number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required
for complete hydrolysis of 1g of fat
21. Why is transport of lipids through water tricky?
Ans. Lipids are non-polar and oily and hence hydrophobic, making them hard to
transport through wter. They are transported as lipoproteins which have
phospholipid coatings which are less hydrophobic
22. Structure of phospholipid, cholestrol
Ans. Lec 5 2nd part
23. What are chylomicrons?
Ans. Chylomicrons are large triglyceride-rich lipoproteins produced in enterocytes
from dietary lipids—namely, fatty acids, and cholesterol. Chylomicrons are composed
of a main central lipid core that consists primarily of triglycerides, however like
other lipoproteins, they carry esterified cholesterol and phospholipids.
24. LDL cause cholestrol depositiona nd narrowing of arteries, HDL are good as they
trap excess cholestrol
25. Vitamins ADEK are fat soluble, stored in tissues, Vitamins B and C are water
soluble, not stored in tossues, must have constant supply
26. See types of enzymes table and types of enzymes produced and reduced form L6 P2
27. Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin stored in liver made up of cholestrol. It
can be synthesised in sufficient amounts by most mammals if they recieve enough
sunlight, so technically non essential
28. Write the dist of energy released in Kreb's cycle
Ans. Glucose to Pyruvate (Glycolysis- 2 ATP + 2 NADH), In anaerobic respiration
the 2 NADH are reused, so only 2 ATP released
Pyvruvate to Acetyl CoA (2 NADH)
Between CAC and ETC (1 NADH + 1FADH2)
In CAC, 2CO2 released, and during ETC, Oxidative Phosphorylation takes place
in which O2 goes to H20
29. Explain hydrolysis of fats
Ans. Fats get hydrolysed into fatty acids
For each turn (2 carbons) hydrolyed, 1 NADH, 1FADH2 and 1 molecule of
AcetylCoA will be released, and for the last turn, of the fatty acid, 2 molecules
of acetyl CoA, also 2 ATP is used to activate the fat in the first step
C/2 acetyl CoA, and C/2 -1 NADH, FADH2
Also, 1 acetyl Coa gives 12 ATP
30. How many H+ are req to synthesise the different molecule in ATP Synthase
complex?
Ans. for 3 ATP, 10-14 H+, so approx 4 H+ per ATP
for 1 NADH, 10 H+, hence approx 3ATP
for 1 FADH2, 6 H+, hence approx 2 ATP
31.
