PROJECT REPORT ON

ELECTROMAGNETISM

SUBMITTED BY

PRATHIBA.M

2024–2025

SACRED HEART SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL,

CBSE
AFFILIATION NO: 1930505
TRICHY- PUDUKKOTTAI ROAD, MATHUR,
KULATHUR(TALUK)
PUDUKKOTTAI – 622515
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is a bonafide project work

done by PRATHIBA.M Roll. No XII,
SACRED HEART SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL,
CBSE, on the topic ELECTROMAGNETISM
during the year 2024- 2025

Submitted for AISSCE practical examination held in

PHYSICS at SACRED HEART SENIOR SECONDARY
SCHOOL, CBSE, Pudukkottai Road, Mathur(post),
Kulathur(Taluk),Pudukkottai Dt-622515.

Date: Internal Examiner

PRINCIPAL External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At this outset, I express my gratitude to the Almighty

Lord for the divine guidance and wisdom showered on me
to undertake this project.

I would like to express my special gratitude to my

School Principal Rev. Sr. Deepa Joseph for the
involvement in this project by providing useful inputs and
timely suggestions.

I express my respectful and sincere thanks to

Mrs. Delphin Reena my Physics Teacher and for the
guidance and help to make this project a success.

I extend my special thanks to my class students and

my friends who helped to carry out this project in a
successful manner. Hence all deserve my sincere thanks.

My parents also played a key role in shaping up this

project nicely and I convey my special thanks to them as
well.
 INDEX

S.NO. TITLE
1 Introduction to Electromagnetism
2 Electromagnetic induction
3 Introduction to Faraday’s Law and
Lenz’s Law
4 Faraday’s Law
5 The Maxwell–Faraday equation
6 Faraday’s Law Equations
Applications of Faraday’s Law
7 Experiment
8 Conclusion
Introduction to Electromagnetism:

Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that studies the

interaction between electrically charged particles and
electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetic fields are a
combination of invisible electric and magnetic fields that are
generated by natural phenomena and human activities.
Electromagnetism is responsible for many physical and
chemical phenomena in everyday life, including the
electrostatic attraction that holds atoms together.
Electromagnetic fields can be static, slowly changing, or form
waves, which are generally known as light.
Electromagnetic fields are made up of electric and magnetic
fields, which can exist independently during static conditions.
When only an electric field is present, it's called an
electrostatic field, and when only a magnetic field is present,
it's called a magnetostatic field.
Electromagnetic fields are a combination of invisible electric
and magnetic fields of force. They are generated by natural
phenomena like the Earth's magnetic field but also by human
activities, mainly through the use of electricity.
Electromagnetism is the physical interaction among electric
charges, magnetic moments, and electromagnetic fields.
An electromagnetic field can be static, slowly changing, or
form waves. Electromagnetic waves are generally known as
light and obey the laws of optics.
Moving electric charges create magnetic fields in the space
around them. These magnetic fields can be used to generate
magnetic forces. Oppositely, when magnetic fields are
changed around charges, they can create moving electric
charges, or electricity.
The principle of an electromagnet is that a magnetic field is
created due to changing electric fields created when a current
is flowing on a conducting wire such as copper, coiled in a
ferromagnetic core, such as iron nail. When the current is
turned off, the magnetic field disappears.
Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are
created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a
magnetic field. In other words, EM waves are composed of
oscillating magnetic and electric fields.

Electromagnetic induction:
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an
electromotive force across an electrical conductor in a
changing magnetic field. It can also occur when a conductor
moves through a stationary magnetic field. For example,
moving an electric wire through a magnetic field will generate
a current in the wire.
Michael Faraday is credited with discovering electromagnetic
induction in 1831. James Clerk Maxwell later mathematically
described it as Faraday's law of induction, which was later
generalized into the Maxwell–Faraday equation. Lenz's law
describes the direction of the induced field.
Electromagnetic induction has many practical applications,
including electrical components like transformers and
inductors, and devices like generators and electric motors. It's
a significant discovery because it allows for the production of
electrical energy in a circuit using magnetic fields instead of
batteries.

Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael

Faraday, published in 1831. It was discovered independently
by Joseph Henry in 1832.
In Faraday's first experimental demonstration (August 29,
1831), he wrapped two wires around opposite sides of an iron
ring or "torus" (an arrangement similar to a modern toroidal
transformer). [citation needed] Based on his understanding of
electromagnets, he expected that, when current started to flow
in one wire, a sort of wave would travel through the ring and
cause some electrical effect on the opposite side. He plugged
one wire into a galvanometer, and watched it as he connected
the other wire to a battery. He saw a transient current, which
he called a "wave of electricity", when he connected the wire
to the battery and another when he disconnected it. This
induction was due to the change in magnetic flux that
occurred when the battery was connected and disconnected.
Within two months, Faraday found several other
manifestations of electromagnetic induction. For example, he
saw transient currents when he quickly slid a bar magnet in
and out of a coil of wires, and he generated a steady (DC)
current by rotating a copper disk near the bar magnet with a
sliding electrical lead ("Faraday's disk”)
Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept
he called lines of force. However, scientists at the time widely
rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly because they were not
formulated mathematically. An exception was James Clerk
Maxwell, who used Faraday's ideas as the basis of his
quantitative electromagnetic theory. In Maxwell's model, the
time varying aspect of electromagnetic induction is expressed
as a differential equation, which Oliver Heaviside referred to
as Faraday's law even though it is slightly different from
Faraday's original formulation and does not describe motional
emf.
In 1834 Heinrich Lenz formulated the law named after him to
describe the "flux through the circuit". Lenz's law gives the
direction of the induced emf and current resulting from
electromagnetic induction.
The principles of electromagnetic induction are applied in
many devices and systems, including:
 Current clamp
 Electric generators
 Electromagnetic forming
 Graphics tablet
 Hall effect sensors
 Induction cooking
  Induction motors
 Induction sealing
 Induction welding
 Inductive charging
 Inductors
 Magnetic flow meters
 Mechanically powered flashlight
 Near-field communications
 Pickups
 Rowland ring
 Transcranial magnetic stimulation
 Transformers
 Wireless energy transfer

Introduction to Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s

Law:
Faraday’s Law provides the magnitude of this induced EMF
and Lenz’s law provides the direction. This change in
magnetic flux could be dur to a change in the strength of the
magnetic field, and also a change in the area of the loop or a
change in the orientation of the magnetic field with respect to
the plane of the loop. Lenz’s law states the direction of an
induced current and Faraday’s law relates the magnitude of
induced back EMF to the rate of change in the inducing
magnetic field.

Introduction to Faraday’s Law:

Faraday's law of electromagnetic Introduction:
Whenever conductor is placed a varying magnetic field. an
Enf gets Conductor induced across the. In physics a
quantitative relationship expressing that a changing magnetic
field induces a voltage in a circuit, developed on the basis of
experimental observations made in 1831 by the English
Scientist Michael Faraday. The first productive experiments
Concerning the effects of time - Varying magnetic fields were
performed by Michael Faraday 1831 of an emf is induced
when the magnetic field in the coil is changed boy pushing a
bar magnet into or out of the Coil Emfs of opposite signs are
produced by motion in opposite directions, and direction of
emfs are also reversed by reversing poles. Same results are
produced if the coil is moved rather than the magnet it is the
than the magnet it is the relative motion that the magnet is an
important. The faster the motion, the greater the EMF, and the
EMF when the magnet is Stationary relative to the coil.
Faraday also discovered a similar effect can be produced
using two circuit a changing circuit induces current in one
circuit nearby circuit. for example, when the Switch is closed
in circuit 1 the ammeter needle quickly returns to its original
position, where it remains. however, if the switch of circuit I
is now suddenly opened, another Short-lived current surge in
the direction opposite from before is observed in circuit-2.
Faraday realized that in both experiments, a current flowed in
the circuit containing the ammeter only when the magnetic
field in the region occupied by that circuit was changing. As
the magnet of the figure was moved, the strength of its
magnetic field at the loop.
Changed and when the current in circuit 1 was turned on or
off the Strength of its magnetic field at circuit 2 changed.
Faraday was eventually able to interpret these and all other
experiments involving magnetic fields that vary with time in
terms of the low.

Faraday’s Law:

The faraday's law States that the electromotive force around a

closed path is equal to the negative of the time rate of change
of the magnetic flux enclosed by the path.

About the physicist:

Michael Faraday (September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was

an English scientist who contributed to the study
of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main
discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic
induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.
Although Faraday received little formal education, as a self-
made man, he was one of the most influential scientists in
history. It was by his research on the magnetic field around
a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established
the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday
also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and
that there was an underlying relationship between the two
phenomena.
He similarly discovered the principles of electromagnetic
induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis.
His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the
foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely
due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in
technology.
As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene, investigated
the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of
the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and
popularised terminology such as "anode", "cathode",
"electrode" and "ion". Faraday ultimately became the first and
foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal
Institution, a lifetime position. Faraday was an experimentalist
who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language.
However, his mathematical abilities did not extend as far
as trigonometry and were limited to the simplest
algebra. James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and
others and summarized it in a set of equations which is
accepted as the basis of all modern theories of
electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of lines of
force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to have been in
reality a mathematician of a very high order – one from whom
the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and
fertile methods." The SI unit of capacitance is named in his
honour: the farad.
The Maxwell–Faraday equation:

The Maxwell–Faraday equation states that a time-varying

magnetic field always accompanies a spatially varying (also
possibly time-varying), non-conservative electric field, and
vice versa. The Maxwell–Faraday equation is

(in SI units) where ∇ × is the curl operator and again E(r, t) is

the electric field and B(r, t) is the magnetic field. These fields
can generally be functions of position r and time t.[26]
The Maxwell–Faraday equation is one of the four Maxwell's
equations, and therefore plays a fundamental role in the theory
of classical electromagnetism.
It can also be written in an integral form by the Kelvin–
Stokes theorem,[27] thereby reproducing Faraday's law:
where, as indicated in the figure, Σ is a surface bounded by
the closed contour ∂Σ, dl is an infinitesimal vector element of
the contour ∂Σ, and dA is an infinitesimal vector element of
surface Σ. Its direction is orthogonal to that surface patch, the
magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of surface.
Both dl and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign,
the right-hand rule is used, as explained in the article Kelvin–
Stokes theorem. For a planar surface Σ, a positive path
element dl of curve ∂Σ is defined by the right-hand rule as one
that points with the fingers of the right hand when the thumb
points in the direction of the normal n to the surface Σ.
The line integral around ∂Σ is called circulation. A nonzero
circulation of E is different from the behaviour of the electric
field generated by static charges. A charge-generated E-field
can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field that is a
solution to Poisson's equation, and has a zero path integral.
See gradient theorem.
The integral equation is true for any path ∂Σ through space,
and any surface Σ for which that path is a boundary.
If the surface Σ is not changing in time, the equation can be
rewritten:

The surface integral at the right-hand side is the explicit

expression for the magnetic flux ΦB through Σ.
The electric vector field induced by a changing magnetic flux,
the solenoidal component of the overall electric field, can be
approximated in the non-relativistic limit by the volume
integral equation.

Faraday’s Law Equations:

The four Maxwell's equations (including the Maxwell–
Faraday equation), along with Lorentz force law, are a
sufficient foundation to derive everything in classical
electromagnetism. Therefore, it is possible to "prove"
Faraday's law starting with these equations.
The starting point is the time-derivative of flux through an
arbitrary surface Σ (that can be moved or deformed) in space:

This total time derivative can be evaluated and simplified with

the help of the Maxwell–Faraday equation and some vector
identities.
Consider the time-derivative of magnetic flux through a
closed boundary (loop) that can move or be deformed. The
area bounded by the loop is denoted as Σ(t)), then the time-
derivative can be expressed as
The integral can change over time for two reasons: The
integrand can change, or the integration region can change.
These add linearly, therefore:

where t0 is any given fixed time. We will show that the first
term on the right-hand side corresponds to transformer emf,
the second to motional emf (from the magnetic Lorentz force
on charge carriers due to the motion or deformation of the
conducting loop in the magnetic field). The first term on the
right-hand side can be rewritten using the integral form of the
Maxwell–Faraday equation:

Next, analysing the second term on the right-hand side:

As the loop moves and/or deforms, it sweeps out a surface

(see the right figure). As a small part of the loop dl moves
with velocity vl over a short time dt, it sweeps out an area
whose vector is dAsweep = vl dt × dl (note that this vector is
toward out from the display in the right figure). Therefore, the
change of the magnetic flux through the loop due to the
deformation or movement of the loop over the time dt is

Here, identities of triple scalar products are used. Therefore,

where vl is the velocity of a part of the loop ∂Σ.

Putting these together results in,

The result is:

where ∂Σ is the boundary (loop) of the surface Σ, and vl is the

velocity of a part of the boundary.
Applications of Faraday’s Law
Following are the fields where Faraday’s law finds
applications:
 Electrical equipment like transformers works on the basis
of Faraday’s law.
 Induction cooker works on the basis of mutual induction,
which is based on the principle of Faraday’s law.
 By inducing an electromotive force into an
electromagnetic flowmeter, the velocity of the fluids is
recorded.
 Electric guitar and electric violin are musical instruments
that find an application of Faraday’s law.
 Maxwell’s equation is based on the converse of
Faraday’s laws which states that a change in the
magnetic field brings a change in the electric field.
EXPERIMENT:

Aim:
To apply Faraday’s law in induction cooker.

What you require:

A pan and an induction cooker

Explanation on experiment:
 When a pan is placed on top of induction cooker area the
current is induced
 The device produce heat by inducing a current in the
cooking vessel
 Faraday’s law of induction is basic law of
electromagnetism that predicts how a magnetic field will
interact with an electric circuit to produce an
electromotive force.
 So, we can apply this in our daily activities like induction
cookers, generators, motors, transformers etc.
 Here we are comparing with a “INDUCTION
COOKER”
  It uses rapidly alternating magnetic flux to generate eddy
currents that heat the vessels because of electrical
resistance.
 Eddy current invites current into the coil even though
there is no electrical connection between coil and
cookware.
 Induction coil and the cookware behave like a loosely
coupled transformer.
We can learn to-
 Identify the parameters that affect the application of
Faraday's law of induction.
 investigate the relationship between the variation in the
magnetic flux and the induced electromotive force.
 The Change in magnetic flux over time is equal to the
induced Voltage EMF, electromotive force, or induced
voltage is equal to the Change in magnetic flux over
time.
 IGBT - Insulated-gate bipolar transistor.
Graph 1:
There is more energy win stored in the coil and when the coil
released the energy, the amplitude of the oscillation is also
higher the voltage touches the ground as it
swings downwards.
Graph 2:
If the coil is energized by a narrower pulse the amplitude of
swings is smaller, and sometimes can even touch the ground.
To do continues cooking, the IGBT must continuously re-
energize the induction coil.

This is the actual collector voltage when the induction cooker

is set to the maximum output 2000 waltz. At the maximum
power, the inductor is energized longer and when the 1 GBT
is cut off the inductor produces a flyback EMF, and to catch
the current and absorb the voltage.
IF the induction power is set at 1400 W the flyback EMF is
reduced and the 1GBT is safe.
When the cookware is there to absorb the energy from the
inductor and capacitor,
When the cookware is absent it will be more cycles as seen
above.
Result:
Finally, faraday concluded that if relative motion existed
between a conductor and a magnetic field, the flux. linkage
with a coil Changed and this Change in flux produced coil
a voltage across coil.

Conclusion:
Faraday concluded that at whatever point there is a general
movement between a loop and a magnet, an emf is set up
across the loop or a current flow through the loop. Lenz
conducted his first experiment and he concluded that when a
current in a coil is induced or as a current start flowing in a
coil, the magnetic field lines will increase and the direction of
the flow of the induced current will oppose the increase in the
magnetic flux. Lenz's law upholds the general principle of the
conservation of energy. If the current were induced in the
opposite direction, its action would spontaneously draw the
bar magnet into the coil in addition to the heating effect,
which would violate conservation of energy.

Bibliography:
www.akash.com
www.jeet.cbse.com
www.learn cbse.com
Ncert book class 12 physics