Formation Evaluation

Lecture 3: Storage Capacity of Reservoir Rocks

• Measurement of Rock Properties

• Pore Geometry and Porosity

• Wettability

• Capillary Pressure

• Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• The Leverett J Function

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Importance of Rock Properties

• Allow accurate estimates of in place volumes

• porosity

• distribution of fluids
• wettability

• capillary pressure

• Determine residual saturations

RECOVERY FACTOR
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Measurement of Rock Properties

• Direct Measurements
Routine Core Analysis (RCA): φ,k
Special Core Analysis (SCAL): Pc , kr

• Well Logs

• Well Tests

All data needs to be reconciled

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Measurement of Rock Properties

Gamma (Rock Type) High = Shales
Low = Sands

Resistivity (Fluid Type) High = Hydrocarbons

Low = Brine

Acoustic (Porosity) Fast = More Rock

Slow = More Fluid

SP (Permeable Beds) High = Permeable

Low = Impermeable

Density (Porosity)
Compton scattering (depends on bulk density)
Lower apparent bulk density = Gas Present

Neutron (Liquid filled Porosity)

Neutron scattering (depends on hydrogen)
Lower apparent porosity = Gas Present

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Pore Geometry

Key feature since it controls:

• porosity

• fluid distribution

• permeability

Intimately linked with Reservoir Quality

Consider a highly stylised model of pore geometry……...

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Pore Geometry and Reservoir Quality Increasing Quality

• pore size and shape

• pore throat size

• pore-to-throat size ratio

• number of throats per pore

• whether pores of similar sizes are

clustered or randomly distributed

Pore geometry an essential part

of reservoir characterisation
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Total and Effective Porosity

Porosity, φ , is defined as the pore (void) volume

in a rock divided by the bulk volume of the rock
…....

…… however, not all pore space is useful from

the point of view of fluid extraction ……
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Total and Effective Porosity

interconnected or
effective porosity

isolated or non-
effective porosity

• it is the connected void space which is

of importance in reservoir engineering

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Total and Effective Porosity

In an idealised system of equally sized

touching spheres the porosity can vary….

…..from 48%, when the spheres

are arranged in a simply packed
structure

...to 26%, when the spheres

are packed in a face-centred-
cubic structure

These values can be determined from

simple geometric considerations

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Porosity in Sands and Sandstones

Varies primarily with: Porosity of productive sands

and sandstones is generally
• grain size distribution between 10 and 40%

• grain shapes

• packing arrangement

• clay content

More variable in carbonates, • cementation

generally lower but can be 50%
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Porosity Classifications (note: very broad brush)

Three classifications based on pore size

• Microporosity micro scale (< 1 μm diameter) molecular forces between fluid

and rock are significant. Commonly associated with clay
minerals, especially authigenic clay minerals. Connected but
do not contribute to the effective porosity due to strong
capillary forces

• Primary porosity “pores”, typically have dimensions ~ 10 μm.

• Cavernous In the largest void spaces the motion of the fluid is only
partially determined by the walls of the void.

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Porosity Classifications

• Microporosity

• Primary porosity
Interparticle Intercrystalline
microporosity
porosity porosity
• Moldic (related to rock fabric)

• Vugs (unrelated to rock fabric)

• Fracture (related to stress)

moldic Intraparticle Vug Fracture

porosity porosity porosity porosity

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Porosity and Compressibility

During fluid production the pressure drops

so bulk volume reduces

and rock grains expand

Both phenomena reduce porosity

1 dV
C=−
V dp

Effect is often small (0.5% for a 1,000 psi drop)

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Porosity and Compressibility

Small dV has greater % effect on low φ system
…….so expect C to decrease as φ increases
Change in Pore Vol / Unit Pore Vol / psi-1

10
Pore Compressibility X 106

Sandstone
8
Limestone

5 10 15 20 25
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity Porosity (% )
 Formation Evaluation

Porosity and Compressibility

• If pressure maintained during field development no impact

• Even if pressure not maintained effect often slight

• Compaction plays a part in the original reservoir formation

−αz
Compaction = f (burial depth) φ = φ0e
• Porosity of clay at surface ~60-70%, at 2,000 m ~ 5%

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Wettability

• Measure of attraction between rock and fluids

• Important because, together with capillarity, it controls…...

where the different fluids position

themselves relative to each other

how easily they flow

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Wettability

• Measure of which fluid preferentially adheres to the rock

• Wetting fluid is the one most attracted to the rock surface

• θ is the contact angle measured through the water phase

Oil Oil

Water
θ Water θ

Rock Rock

If θ < 90o reservoir If θ > 90o reservoir

rock is water wet rock is oil wet
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Wettability 4

• Can be measured using a

method proposed by Amott

1 Water flush to residual oil

3 1-S

Pressure
2 Immerse in water or
3 Immerse in oil
Swc 5 1
<Sw>
4 Centrifuge under oil 2
5 Immerse in water
6 Centrifuge under water
6

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Wettability 4

• Oil Index
Vw1 Vw2 Vw1
OI =
Vw1 + Vw 2
3 1-S

Pressure
• Oil Wet: OI ~ 1 or

Swc 5 1
<Sw>
• Water Index 2
Vo1
WI =
Vo1 + Vo 2 Vo1 Vo2

• Water Wet: WI ~ 1 6

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Wettability
It used to be assumed that all reservoirs were water-wet……..
Factors Affecting Wettability
especially presence of ashphaltenes,
• oil composition low ashphaltenes -> water-wet but…...
• rock mineralogy ~silica water-wet, calcite oil-wet
• fluid saturation highest where water saturation highest
relative importance
• reservoir pressure and temperature
generally uncertain
• thickness of connate water layer
• formation water composition and pH
• time dependent in the laboratory
• clean core can be oil-wet or water-wet
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure

Capillary pressure is the force that causes

a fluid to rise up a fine tube when one end
of the tube is immersed in a wetting fluid

Important in reservoir engineering because

it controls the static fluid distributions in the
reservoir before and after production

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure

• Capillary force, F, = 2π rσ
2r
F

Air

• Vertical component = 2π rσ cosθ θ

• Acts over an area π r2 Water

• Capillary pressure (Force / Area):

2σ cosθ
Pc =
r
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure
• Depends inversely on the capillary radius
the narrower the tube …... the higher the rise
Non-wetting Phase

Free Surface Free Surface

Wetting Phase

• Pc related to height of water column

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure
Height (h) above free water level: Non-wetting Phase
Pressure P
Depth
• Pressure in non-wetting phase z

Pnw = Pfwl − ρ nw g h
Pnw = ρ nw gz
Pnw
Pc
• Pressure in wetting phase
Pc = Pnw − Pw
Pw = Pfwl − ρ w g h height
Pw
h
• Difference in phase pressures Free Pc = 0 Free
Surface Surface
(capillary pressure)
Pw = ρ w gz
Pc = ( ρ w − ρ nw )g h
Wetting Phase

Pc = 0.433 (Δγ ) h
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure
• Has been expressed in terms of:
Non-wetting Phase

Interfacial Forces & Hydrostatic Forces

2r
F

2σ cos θ
Air

Pc = 0.433 (Δγ ) h
Pnw

Pc = θ

Free
Pw
height
h r Water
h

Surface
combining
Wetting Phase

4.6 σ cosθ
h≈
r (Δγ )

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure Measurements

• Centrifugal Method

• Sample saturated with wetting fluid, placed in a container of non-wetting fluid and rotated

• Centrifugal force produces a pressure gradient directed outward from axis of rotation

• Wetting fluid denser -> higher pressure developed in the fluid within the sample

• Excess pressure in wetting fluid is Pc, determined from geometry, Δρ and ω

• Pc expels wetting fluid at far end while non-wetting fluid enters at near end

• At constant ω, equilibrium Sw distribution develops according to Pc / Sw relationship

• Sw determined by measuring amount of wetting fluid expelled

• ω increased, measurements repeated etc.

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation
4 P4

Capillary Pressure Measurements

• Displacement Method
4
3
P3

• Mercury strongly non-wetting character

• Determine a mercury / air relationship

• Convert to a water / oil relationship

Injection Pressure
3 2 P2

(conversion explained later)

• Dry, air-filled core sample

immersed in bath of mercury (1)

• System is gradually pressurised and 2 1

P1
finally largest capillary is flooded (2)

• Smaller pores are then flooded (3) (4) 100 0

(air is the wetting phase so this is a drainage process) Pore space filled (%)
1
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure Measurements

• Displacement Method

Effective Pore Throat Radius

‘well-sorted’

Injection Pressure
~ only one pore throat radius

bimodal case
simpler version of previous slide

‘unsorted’
100% 0%
~ continuous range of pore throat sizes;
core will fill gradually as the pressure is increased

anything ‘in between’ is possible !!

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure Measurements

• Displacement Method : Conversion of Values

2σ a / m cos θ a / m
‘air / mercury’ values Pca / m =
r
need to be converted to
2σ b / hc cos θ b / hc
‘brine / oil’ values Pcb / hc =
r

σ b / hc cosθ b / hc ‘known’ quantities

Pcb / hc = Pca / m
σ a / m cosθ a / m
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure Measurements

• Displacement Method : Conversion of Values

Wetting Non-wetting Conditions Contact Angle Interfacial

Phase Phase (Degrees) Tension
(dynes/cm)
Brine Oil Reservoir 30 30
Brine Oil Laboratory 30 48

Brine Gas Reservoir 0 (50)

Brine Gas Laboratory 0 72

Oil Gas Reservoir 0 4

Gas Mercury Laboratory 140 480

Typical Fluid Pairs used in Capillary Pressure Measurements

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure Measurements

• Displacement Method
100

Mercury Injected (% of Pore Volume)

80

60

40

20

Surface
Defects

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Pore Throat Radius (Microns)
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

non equilibrium equilibrium

Capillary Pressure
• Hysteresis : A Simple Physical Model
non equilibrium equilibrium

More water around in equilibrium

state following a drainage process

imbibition drainage
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Capillary Pressure
• Hysteresis : Laboratory Measurements

For a given Pc the saturation is

higher for a drainage process
Capillary Pressure

Pc
Drainage

Imbibition

S wc 1 − Sor 100%

% of Pore Volume
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Oil Migration

S w = 100% S w < 100%

Oil Oil

Pb < Pc Pb > Pc

buoyancy effects compete with capillary effects

oil “floats” on water water “rises” up a straw
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Hydrocarbon Seals
Curves may cross each other,
there is no general trend

(Drainage Curves)
Pc
Capillary Pressure

As permeability decreases…..
0.1 md
1 md
10md
100md
1000md
Displacement displacement (entry)
Pressure
pressure increases
0 100

Water Saturation (%)

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Hydrocarbon Seals

• rock with a very small

pore throat radius
S w < 100%

• corresponding to a very
high entry pressure Oil

Pb > Pc

What happens if oil continues to accumulate?

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Hydrocarbon Seals
Integrity of seal may be compromised if
buoyancy forces > seal’s trapping capability

leak
h
hmax
Pc
h=
0.434 (Δγ )
Pds − Pdr
concept of maximum hmax =
possible oil column 0.434 (Δγ )
(important in economic evaluations)
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Transition Zones

Sw = 100% Sw < 100%

pb > pc pb < pc

buoyancy effects compete with capillary effects

oil “floats” on water water “rises” up a straw
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Transition Zones: Single Layered System

Water Water and Oil Oil

Oil

Transition
Zone

Water

0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1 .0
Water Saturation

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Transition Zones: Multi-Layered System

Well

1 2 3 4 5

k1 > k5 > k4 > k3 > k2

OWC2

OWC3

OWC4
OWC5
OWC1
FWL

Each unit has a distinct OWC and Swc

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir

• Transition Zones: Multi-Layered System

Well

1 2 3 4 5

k1 > k5 > k4 > k3 > k2

1 5 4 3 2

OWC2

OWC3 1
OWC4 k 1 > k5 > k4 > k 3 > k2
OWC5
OWC1
FWL

Depth
3

4
OWC4

5 OWC5
FWL
0 Sw 100 %

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Problem
Even within a given lithology, core capillary
data varies due to:
• k, φ variations
• different interfacial tensions

• Objective
Attempts to link permeability (dynamic property)
and porosity (static property) in a simple way

• Method
Correlates capillary pressure measurements by
systematically transforming the data

(useful when estimating Swc )

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Model Assumptions
Entire porous medium can be thought of as a
collection of capillary tubes of equal radius (r)
Δp

r
q

L
πr 4 Δp
Hagen-Poiseuille’s Law: q=
8μ Lcap
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Model Assumptions
Porosity (φ) of a bundle of (n) capillaries, whose
ends occupy surface area (A), given by:

Porosity: φ = nπ r 2 A

Permeability (k) defined via experiments on

a length of core sample (Lcore) as:

Darcy’s Law: k = qμLcore AΔp

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Model Outcomes
Step 1: Derive Equations

Hagen-Poiseuille
πr 4 Δp Step 2: cancel q
q=
8μ Lcap Step 3: cancel A
πr ⎛⎜ Lcore ⎞⎟
4
A=
qμ Lcore 8 ⎜⎝ Lcap ⎟⎠ r =8
2
Lcap k
k=
A Δp Lcore φ
nπr 2
Darcy φ=
A
Porosity

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Model Outcomes
Lcap k
r =8
2
explicitly recognises that length of fluid
Lcore φ path through core ≠ length of capillary

its path is “tortuous”

(additional assumption)
if tortuosity assumed constant then r =C (k φ )
Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Model Outcomes

r =C (k φ ) r∝ (k φ ) Dimensionless Number

Pc k φ
J=
2σ cosθ σ cosθ σ cos θ
Pc = r∝
r Pc (cosθ often ~ 1)
(from Pc considerations)

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity

 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function

• Model Outcomes

A simple relationship has been developed between

k (a dynamic ‘tensor’ property) and φ (a static ‘scalar’ property)

(this approach was developed by Leverett)

So,variations in k and φ measurements from core samples

taken from the same rock type should correlate…..

…. but do they !!??

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity
 Formation Evaluation

Leverett J Function 6

5 Permeability (md) Porosity (%)

• J values plotted against 11.2 14.7

wetting phase saturation 157.0

569.0
20.8

27.5
4 34.0 17.4

Pc (k md φ )
0. 5 Interfacial Tension = 70 dynes/cm

J= Wetting Angle = 0 degrees

σ cosθ
3
• single curve so each J value
corresponds to a unique saturation
2

• J function should be developed for 1

each distinct lithology / rock type

0
20 40 60 80 100
S w (% )

Lecture 2: Storage Capacity