GENETICS OF IMPORTANT TRAITS AND THEIR

INHERITANCE PATTERN

INTRODUCTION :
Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study
of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms (Griffiths et al., 2000) or it is the science
of genes and how traits are passed on from one generation to the next. The importance of
studying genetics lies in understanding how we can predict the likelihood of inheriting particular
traits. A trait, as related to genetics, is a specific characteristic of an individual. Traits can be
determined by genes, environmental factors or by a combination of both. Traits can be
qualitative (such as fruit shape, fruit size) or quantitative (such as plant height or TSS). A given
trait is part of an individual’s overall phenotype. The work of Gregor Mendel and the further
advances in science that followed his discoveries established that plant traits or characteristics
are controlled by hereditary factors or genes that consist of DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid, the
hereditary material). These genes are expressed in an environment to produce a trait. It follows
then that, in order to change a trait or its expression, one may change the nature or its genotype.

Genetic diversity is needed to safeguard potentially vital traits that could

be used to combat an unexpected future pest or adapt to the needs of the world's food supply.
Plant breeders utilize genetic diversity to create improved crop varieties with traits such as yield,
pest resistance and environment stress. Plant breeding is a way to modify and improve plant
species to achieve the needs and wants of humankind. Breeding is necessary to develop
resistance to diseases and pests, to drought and temperature extremes, and to improve quality
factors that can positively impact the lives of people throughout the world. Plant breeding can
also be used to help adapt crops to new locations throughout the world, thereby improving food
security and supporting local and regional food systems. Therefore success of a breeding
programme depends on creation of desired genetic variation or on selection of parents with
desired traits and passing of these traits to the offspring. Inheritance is the basis of heredity and
by this process, traits are passed on from the parents to the offsprings. Continuity of the gene
pool is maintained by the process of inheritance. Gregor Mendel was the first person to describe

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the manner in which traits are passed on from one generation to the next (and sometimes skip
generations). Through his breeding experiments with pea plants, Mendel established three
principles of inheritance that described the transmission of genetic traits before genes were even
discovered.

CLASSIFICATION OF INHERITANCE PATTERN OF TRAITS :

In general, inheritance patterns for single gene disorders are classified
based on whether they are autosomal or X-linked and whether they have a dominant or recessive
pattern of inheritance. These disorders are called Mendelian disorders, after the geneticist Gregor
Johann Mendel.
There are two types of inheritance pattern. They are
A. Mendelian inheritance patterns
B. Non- Mendelian inheritance patterns
A. Mendelian inheritance pattern :
Between 1856-1863, Mendel conducted two hybridization experiments
on the garden peas. The two experiments lead to the formulation of Mendel’s laws known as
laws of inheritance.
Key Points on Mendel’s Laws :
 The law of inheritance was proposed by Gregor Mendel after conducting experiments on
pea plants for seven years.
 Mendel’s laws of inheritance include law of dominance, law of segregation and law of
independent assortment.
 According to the law of dominance, hybrid offspring will only inherit the dominant trait
in the phenotype.
 The law of segregation states that every individual possesses two alleles and only one
allele is passed on to the offspring.
 The law of independent assortment states that the inheritance of one pair of genes is
independent of inheritance of another pair.
 Within a population, there may be a number of alleles for a given gene.
 Individuals that have two copies of the same allele are referred to as homozygous for that
allele.

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  Individuals that have copies of different alleles are known as heterozygous for that allele.
 The inheritance patterns observed will depend on whether the allele is found on an
autosomal chromosome or a sex chromosome, and on whether the allele is dominant or
recessive.
i. Autosomal dominant
If the phenotype associated with a given version of a gene is observed
when an individual has only one copy, the allele is said to be autosomal dominant. The
phenotype will be observed whether the individual has one copy of the allele (is heterozygous) or
has two copies of the allele (is homozygous).
ii. Autosomal recessive
If the phenotype associated with a given version of a gene is observed
only when an individual has two copies, the allele is said to be autosomal recessive. The
phenotype will be observed only when the individual is homozygous for the allele concerned. An
individual with only one copy of the allele will not show the phenotype, but will be able to pass
the allele on to subsequent generations. As a result, an individual heterozygous for an autosomal
recessive allele is known as a carrier.
iii. Sex-linked or X-linked inheritance
 In many organisms, the determination of sex involves a pair of chromosomes that differ
in length and genetic content - for example, the XY system used in human beings and
other mammals.
 The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes, and many of these are not connected with
the determination of sex.
 The smaller Y chromosome contains a number of genes responsible for the initiation and
maintenance of maleness, but it lacks copies of most of the genes that are found on the X
chromosome.
 As a result, the genes located on the X chromosome display a characteristic pattern of
inheritance referred to as sex-linkage or X-linkage.
 Females (XX) have two copies of each gene on the X chromosome, so they can be
heterozygous or homozygous for a given allele.

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  However, males (XY) will express all the alleles present on the single X chromosome
that they receive from their mother, and concepts such as 'dominant' or 'recessive' are
irrelevant.
Non-Mendelian inheritance patterns :
i. Complex and multifactorial inheritance
 Some traits or characteristics display continuous variation, a range of phenotypes that
cannot be easily divided into clear categories.
 In many of these cases, the final phenotype is the result of an interaction between two or
more genes, or genetic factors and environmental influences. An example is kernel color
in wheat.
 Traits in which a range of phenotypes can be produced by gene interactions and gene
environment interactions are known as complex or multifactorial.
ii. Mitochondrial inheritance
 Mitochondria are scattered throughout the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, and their
DNA is replicated as part of the process of mitochondrial division.
 A newly formed embryo receives all its mitochondria from the mother through the egg
cell, so mitochondrial inheritance is through the maternal line.

REQUIREMENTS FOR A PATTERN OF INHERITANCE :

Following a 'pattern of inheritance' requires:
 Two parent plants that are 'pure breeding',
 Performing a genetic cross using these plants to produce the F1 hybrids,
 Recording the form(s) of the trait seen in the F1 generation of plants,
 Using some of these F1 plants as parents in a second series of genetic crosses to produce
the F2 hybrids,
 Counting the number of times a version of a trait occurs in the f2 hybrids.
 Calculating the ratios of plants showing one form to those plants showing the alternate
form of a trait.

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GENETICS AND INHERITANCE PATTERN OF QUALITY TRAITS IN
FRUIT CROPS
Mango
The mango is not a convenient plant for genetical analysis due to its long
life cycle, cross pollination and high degree of heterozygosity, lack of detail information on its
inheritance pattern, intricate arrangement of sexes in the panicle and excessive fruit drop.
However the inheritance of some characteristics has been worked out which are readily analyzed.
 Some of the more desired characters like upright tree habit is dominant over spreading
and spreading is dominant over dwarfness.
 There exists a strong linkage between bearing and fruit quality. Biennial bearing is
dominant over regular bearing.
 Precocity and regularity of bearing are governed by recessive genes.
 Fruit bearing in bunches gas been observed to be dominant over single fruit bearing.
 The genetics of fruit color has not been studied in detail but available combinations
resulting in different colors.
 The inheritance of duration of the juvenile period is yet to be examined critically.
 Totapari Red Small has been found to have a very short juvenile phase and thus it can be
used as a male parent in hybridization programme to reduce the length of the juvenile
phase.
 This is because no effect of the female parent has been found on the distribution of the
juvenile period or fertility.
 Resistance to floral malformation is controlled by recessive genes. Spongy tissue, a
physiological disorder of fruits has also been found to be governed by recessive genes.
 Susceptibly to bacteria canker is transmitted through cytoplasmic inheritance.
 Dwarfism, regular bearing and precocity are governed by recessive gene.
 Polyembryony, bunch bearing, presence of beak, biennial bearing & upright habit of the
tree are governed by dominant gene.
 Fruit color is governed by multiple loci. Different combinations resulting in different
colour (Iyer, 1991). This is contrary to the findings of Sharma and Majumdar (1988) that
red colour is dominant over green. Thus when a coloured variety “Janardan Pasand” was

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 crossed with some green fruited varieties, a wide array of colour was observed in the
progenies (Iyer and Subramanyam, 1979).
 Fruit size follows transgressive segregation. Observations on fruit size in five parental
combinations involving cvs Neelum, Totapuri Red, Bangalora, as parents indicated that
fruit size of the hybrids, in general, was inferior. However, some hybrids in all
combinations showed increased size over the better parent (Sharma and Majumdar,
1988).
 While malformation and spongy tissue are governed by recessive gene, bacterial canker
followed cytoplasmic inheritance.
 Presence of prominent beak and marked sinus on the fruit iscontrolled by dominant
genes. (Iyer and Subramanyam, 1979)

Banana
Continuous variation is considered a particular characteristic of
quantitative polygenes. Several characteristics showing continuous variation in Plantain and
banana are controlled by major genes. Dodds and Simmonds (1948) studied sterility and
partenocarpy in diploid hybrids of Musa and verified that parthenocarpy is the result of the
action of the dominant P gene, which expression is subject to the action of modifying genes. In
addition, they concluded that parthenocarpy is independent from the hybrid structure and the
polyploidy, and that the parthenocarpic plants are not completely sterile. Subsequently,
Simmonds (1953) verified that its inheritance is a more complex process, and that a minimum of
three dominant genes (P1, P2 and P3) are involved in crossings among wild bananas. However,
Ortiz and Vuylsteke (1992a) observed that the variation in fruit size and in parhtenocarpy of
Plantain hybrids is due to the segregation of a single dominant gene. The dominance of male
bracts and neutral flowers in the male rachis of the bunch is controlled by complementary and
independent genes, which can be affected by the environment. Foure et al. (1993) verified that
male sterility in Plantain diploid hybrids can be due to the interaction of the sensitive cytoplasm
in the Plantain with at least three recessive nuclear genes in the banana.

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Phenotypic traits and types of gene action in Musa. :
Traits Types of gene action Reference
Albinism Two complementary recessive genes Ortiz and Vulsteke
(1994)

Waxy in pseudostem One recessive gene, plus additive Ortiz et al. (1995)
genes changing the expression
Dry matter contents in the Additive genes Ortiz et al. (1995)
Fingers
Apical dominance One major recessive gene in plantains Ortiz and Vulsteke
(1994)
Male and female fertility Recessives genes interacting with Ortiz, (1995)
cytoplasm sensitive
Margins form of the petiole Duplicate genes with dominant effect Ortiz (1995)

Blak pseudostem blotches Modifier gene due to recessive Ortiz, (1995)

suppressor
Blotches in the pseudostem Two independents genes with Ortiz (1995)
dominant epistasis in plantains and one
complementary additional recessive
gene in banana

Dwarfism in Cavendish One dominant gene with modifier gene Rowe and Richardson
interaction (1975)
Dwarfism in type French One major recessive gene for short
false internodes with modifiers Ortiz and Vulsteke
plantains
affecting plant height (1995)
Bunch orientation Three loci with threshold effect of Ortiz (1995)
dominant genes
Fruit parthenocarpy Three independent complementary Simmonds (1953)
dominant genes
One segregating locus in plantain Ortiz and Vulsteke
hybrids and Calcutta 4 (1992)
Fruit ripening period Transgressive segregation due two Ortiz and Vulsteke
complementary genes or partially (1992)
dominant gene(s) toward long shelf life
Persistence of male bracts Two loci with complementary Ortiz (1995)
dominant genes, which are independent
of the genes for persistence of
hermaphrodite flowers in plantains

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 Traits Types of gene action Reference
Persistence of Two independent loci with Simmonds (1953); Ortiz
hermaphrodite flowers and complementary and dominant genes in (1995)
male bracts bananas and plantain hybrids
Bunch weight Epistatic interactions increase yield in Ortiz and Vulsteke
poliploid hybrids (1992)
Red pigmentation in leaves Modifier gene interaction due to Ortiz (1995)
recessive suppresor
Bacterial wilt (moko disease) Several recessive genes Vakilii (1965); Rowe
resitance and Richardson (1975)
Fusarium wilt reistance One major dominant gene for race 1. Vakili (1965).
Polygenic system for race 4
Burrowing nematode One or more dominant genes Rowe (1991)
resistance
Yellow Sigatoka resistance Recessive genes in M. acuminata ssp. Ortiz and Vulsteke
burmanica (1994)
Dominant genes in M. acuminata ssp.
malaccensis
Black Sigatoka resistance One major recessive gene and two Ortiz and Vulsteke
additive minor genes with dosage (1994)
effect in plantain hybrids icrocarpa
ssp. errans
Fruit size and weight Larger fruits in polyploids due to Ortiz and Vulsteke
epistasis. Several dominant genes in M. (1992)
acuminata ssp. malaccensis

Citrus (Citrus spp . )

 Sexual progenies from hybridization are commonly highly variable.
 Single gene inheritance is rarely found and F1 offspring often display a wide quantitative
range of character expression (Furr, 1969).
 Several undesirable characters such as Small fruit size, seediness, paleness of colour and
presence of oil gland in juice sacs and rinds appear to be dominant (Soost,1987).
 Trifoliate leaf characters of Poncirus show essentially complete dominance over
monofoliate condition of citrus.
 Purple colour in young leaves in lemon is governed by a dominant gene. Crossing
between polyembryonic cultivars and monoembryonic cultivar resulted both type of
offspring in 1:1 ratio.
 Small size of fruits, sadiness and paleness of colour to be dominant.

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  Characters like presence of thorns, pubescence and oil gland are dominant characters
whereas reduction of nectarines and scaleness of flower are recessive.

Papaya (Carica papaya)

 The studies with regard to inheritance of quantitative characters are limited in papaya.
 Researchers found that additive gene effects controlled fruit weight, fruit shape, flesh
thickness and total soluble solids.
 Dinesh (1989) also found that additive gene effects controlled the characters fruit length,
fruit breadth, cavity index, total sugar and total carotenoids.
 Singh (1990) reported that yellow color of flesh is dominant over orange or red flesh
color. Fruit flavor and odor is governed by multiple genes (Yadav and Prasad, 1990).

Guava (Psidium guajava)

 Heritability in the broad sense encompasses all types of gene action including dominance,
additive, and epistasis.
 Considerable research effort has gone into estimating the heritability pattern in guava.
 It has been observed that commercially important traits, such as yield, fruit size and
quality characteristics (Vitamin C, acidity, pectin etc.) are often in low – heritability
category.
 None of these characters are determined solely by major genes, although basic genes,
subject to the modifying effects of polygenes, have been identified for some quality
characters like skin color and acidity.
 However, the red pulp color is dominant over white and this character is governed
monogenically (Subramanyam and Iyer, 1982).
 Many cultivated red fleshed varieties were found to be heterozygous for this character.
 Similarly, bold seed in guava were found to be dominant over soft seeds and this
character was also found to be governed monogenically.
 A linkage was also found between red pulp color and bold seed size (Subramanyam and
Iyer, 1982).
 Obovoid shape of the fruit is dominant over round and pyriform.

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Grape (Vitis vinifera)
 Inheritance pattern has been studied extensively for different characters, viz. yield and
quality attributs (Avramov et al., 1996), Seedlessness (Spiegel- Rao et al., 1980), time of
ripening and aroma (Hirakawa et al., 1998).
 In grape, 3 major colours viz. white, red and black are found.
 Segregation for character supports a 2-gene hypothesis where B, a gene for black fruit is
dominant and epistatic to that for red and white fruit (Barrit and Einset, 1969). Red fruit
(bb Rr) is dominant to white which is recessive for both genes (bbrr).
 Sandhu and Uppal (1988) infer that berry colours are not sharply differentiated but
observations show that black is dominant over both red and white, and red colour is
dominant over white, although most of the red and black varieties appear to be
heterozygous.
 Avramov et al. (1996) have also observed almost similar colour inheritance pattern.
Muscat flavour is controlled by five 5 complimentary dominant genes. Hirakawa et al.
(1998) observed that inheritance of muscat and labrusca flavour obeyed the rule of
independent assortment.
 Their results suggested that six complimentary dominant genes were involved in the
inheritance of muscat flavour and five in labrusca flavour. Singh et al. (1985) could
observe that larger berry size is dominant over small.
 The wide variation in the progenies with regard to berry shape showed that it is a
polygenecally inherited character.
 Seedlessness in grape controlled by recessive factor.
 The presence or absence of anthocyanins in grape skin was inheritance of a quality
character controlled by oligogenes, and anthocyanins content was a quantitative character
controlled by polygenes.
 Glabrous young shoot, thicker cane, longer cane and internodes, short stiff hair on leaf
surface, smaller size of leaf, main vein length and petiole length, vigorous and drooping
habit of the vine, pentagonal leaf shape, shorter maturity period, low bunch weight, round
berry and oval shape of seed show dominance character.

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Pomegranate
 Scanty information is available on the inheritance of pattern of the pomegranate.
 Manohar et al. (1981) reported that economic characters like rind weight, acidity
percentage, fruit weight, aril per fruit, yield per tree and number of fruits per tree exhibit
high heritability and high genetic advance.
 However according to Purohit (1987) use of soft seeded cultivars as male parent slightly
decreased seed hardiness in hard seeded cultivars. Smaller fruit possess bright aril colour.
 A positive and significant relationship between brighter fruit colour and TSS and dark
aril colour and TSS was observed. Further, mellowness was associated with less
sweetness.
 Inheritance studies carried out indicated that high acidity was always dominant to low
acidity, pink aril colour and hard seed nature was dominant to soft (Jalikop and Kumar,
2005).
 Hard seeded pomegranate had higher fruit weight and volume that soft seeded ones
(Jalikop and Kumar, 2005).

Apple (Malus x domestica)

 Anthocyanin pigmentation in Malus pumila is controlled by a single dominant gene
(Lewis and Crane, 1987).
 Brown and Harvey (1971) reported that fruit size, shape and acidity is governed by
polygenes and high acidity was found to be dominant over low acidity.

Pineapple (Ananas comosus)

 Quantitative fruit characters like size and quality (acid and sugar content) have been
reported to be governed by polygenic inheritance (Loison, 1990).

Litchi (Litchi chinenesis)

 Abortion of seeds at later stage of fruit development appears to be a recessive character
(Dwivedi and Mitra, 1996).

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Almond (Prunus communis)
 Bitterness is inherited as a simple, single recessive genes (ss) in cultivated almond.
 Sweetness is dominant transmitted from homozygous (SS) parents as 100% sweet and
segregates from heterozygous parents as sweet to bitter ratio of 3:1.

CONCLUSION :
Genetics of important traits and their pattern of inheritance is different
for different crops. Understanding patterns of inheritance is important to the risk assessment
process. The work of Mendel and others who followed him gave us an idea of inheritance
patterns. Using the Mendel's laws, we can determine new combinations in the progeny of hybrids
and can predict their frequency. This information is vastly used by plants and animal breeders to
produce better breeds. New type of plants with new combinations of useful characters can be
produced by hybridization.

However the nature of those Mendelian factors which determine the

phenotype was not very clear. As these ‘factors’ represent the genetic basis of inheritance,
understanding the structure of genetic material and the structural basis of genotype and
phenotype conversion became the focus of attention in biology for the next century (Anon,
2022).

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