PAfu4 PHLET' FOR AG RICU [-TU RE

Form 2
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CORE ELEN{EI{T 1: A.GRICULTURE AND T!{E ENVIRCT'{I\/iENT

t So ii Co n'l position---------- F v5' 2-8

Z Soii fertiiity page 9- L3
a
J Agricr:tu:e anl clirnate change------ Pase i3-15

CGRE ELEI/iEf.trT 2: A.GRiCUI-TURE RESETIRCI{ F^!{3 TECHI'jGI-CGY

yo 5!
q a-) ll
Agricuitur^al Resea rcn iJcStr LL- i:

CCI?.E ELEIIJIINT 3 AGRiCULTURE ECONOIT4 ICS A.N D FAR!'/!

BUSt I\i ESS [4AltAG Eir{ E l{T

) 1 )1
6 Gender :nci A.gricu ltura I F rcduction lvb' JL-JL

7 Fa i'i:iing Svstems F "b- JJ'JJ

i:iria i-rcing Agricultura I enterprise H*D' 36-4C

f8iiE ELEIiIiEI,IT 4: CftOP PFiODUCTIOI{

3: Cr-op husi:andry practices in m:i:e and groun.inut pi'oiu:ric;t------ pag€ 4i -58

COFIt Et-E[.riEI{T 5: LiVESTOCK PRODL.,CT:ON

ial. Pig Frocucticn page 58-55

Contpiled by:
Fi4. C lr.AyEfili E. [ { t i; l.::} :093"539S3E9
AeSjq{ll. Sj,t egirgf, & ? rc fessic ne ! Ex
Q!,
-3c iAEr.), 5,;r'dc Ccllege cj hEii.ult!:e) Jni'rsr5;;t C?r:'.!.'cie ci Ea'-:atic,i lvCI):5 years cf es:perience c-<5e,r;cr
iic,t-.it:r,1"'CEt"/SCE); 5"ecrs'e;:periencecsChiejExa::i:tt, 1.,rr&!'4SCE); ?rct'idede>:peioiv'i;e:r';ileSir,il::i.,s
fc: t,;:i:::!!.ure; Currenr.!;t le;:,'ri:;g i,gric,-'':u"e :: i,1;t!cnje Secctda:l, Schcci. SpecteiiJinks ic n-r7'!t:s5:n;) cni'iti)!
three ckiiCren ;tr ii:eir sup;tcr-i :iiircr(s con;iioticn c, :k!: :a:'.phlet.

n:gt;a'iags
This pamphiet {nctesj wss ccrtpliec cs rele::ei fram the fcllcwinE booi:s:
't /'--i -,tt..a<...-'-., '!E.i.r ?t:l,tt1^.:-,.r-^r. -r-.-,.-1..^1.^ !^ri2i?:S-l:,iCrSg::n:O.^!L.:-i::.:'.-. i.:._1jr l
(Cticr:ianza ;. et ci);-3. Excei & Su:ceei juniti St:c:it11, .,\g.ial.lli::a SiJi€xis tsoaii 2 i)i ,rya:ahi\\,e tician:-lz a! ::;; -t. Crtl,:L13
I,EiiCUi,:u.3!SiUSerts SCai:2 !{i!.,tnSiiut,:, {,4. Ct:a'13:j,/t.n-t:C,;.t .. L-157 nri11 Liiiar!:u:e S:ujeris EcCi:2 i}?n1i:- la,.:ir,. a:
eii; 5. icst Airi:itn Aqri.:,;ltL:e -ni::'l j,ticn 'J'! r\;-/; :!:',',.7 5z:ic; 52:c::s't A3:iaui:u.? i,C. l,t:insntni);8 -i5r,':a !::l er
Firsn:ic,lrretc:;' i;-, ,i?ri:.'-'!'e !,4cia',"' :'!:ii:-'a: :_' Eit,cc::or,)

ITiOTE: FOi '::.licE Piil{i ?I-EF.SE CAI-L; C995 3t6 388

Fage 1 cf 66 i Coi^nplied L,y: Li-s. l.',.C. I'.a) e-::e I I 995 3S5 388
TOPiC 1: SOiL

1.tr. Soit cGmponents

in form one you learnt about s*ii as cne of the naturai resources lhat infiuence agriculturai prciucti:n and
*rays of conserving it. tn lhis tcpic you rvill learn about the com,por.rents cf soil, the soil prcfiie ani hor^.r it
affects crop proCuction.

\{lhat are the compe*ents of soll?

These are constituents that nreke up scil namely: Inoi'ganic constituents (mineral niatter), Oi-ganic rnatter
(humus), liying organisrns, Soii vr'ater (mcisture) and Soil air {gases}. An iCeal scil is con"inosei of 459lo
inorganic constltuents,25ot'o vi.ater, 75ot'o air anC 59'o orgairic maiter. This compcsition chai^rges depending
on type of farming practices.

f . i. 1 [ nc rga :', ic cor. st;tuents i m ; r' e ra I i-*a".:e r J

These are soll particles which arise fi-oin the breaking dc'.vn of i"ocks. They ccnsist of sand, siit a;rC ctay
particies. There are also small stones and gravel. These scil particies are ciassified accorCing to iheir siz:s'
See tai:le 1 belovv.

Table 1 Shovui Cifferent sizes of soii particles

Soil fraction i Dlameter (ntnT)
Explain tuuo functions of irrorganic constituents cf soil iit plant
tlio\:: Aboi,e 2.00 grolvth.
Ccarse sand 2.00 - 0.2 e They proi,ide anchorag: (suppcrt) to plants to aucid icigilig.
Fine sand 0.2 - 0.02 c Tiiey picvicie minei'ais necessary for pr"oper grcviin cf piaris.
0.82 - 0.002 e They cieterr;ine scil te>tiure'.t'hich in tui;r iirfiue:;:e pnisi;ai and
3eicv,: 0.0C2
cher:ricaI p:'cpe;-ties of scil.

Determination cf incrsanic ccnst it.l:r,ts {niineral matter) in:he scil

Inorganic constituents cf soil can be cietermined using three n'lethods naniely: feel r' relhci, si€ve netncd
anii sedi:"nentaiion inethod.

Experin'rent 1.1t Describe an experirne:rt that can be canducted to determine inorganic cor,stituents in
soil using feel method.
Aim: Tc shov,,that soii contains inci'ganic ccnstitueirts imineral rr'atte r) cf c;fferer,t sizes"
Materiafs reqlrired: -cai"nples of ciay and sani y scil.
Froced';re
L. Pick each of the scil sample between the thumb and first fii"rger.
2.. F.ub the soil between the thunrb and fingei.
3. F,eccri ti:e :bservati:n.
Expected results: Ctay soil feeis finelsir:ail ani sriocth v,,htie Sandr's:ii feels coarse and i'c';;h.
ConcIusioi'l: Soil contains mineral matter cf iiiffer-eni sizes.
Experin:ent 1.2: DescrEhe an experiment that can be conCuctecj to determine inoi'ganic canstituents of
scil using s[eve methad.
.6.in:r: Tc shc'vv that soil cc:".tains incrganic cJnstitrsnts irrinerai r:at:er) cf :i:fei'er,t si:es.
Irriateria[s requireC: A sampie of gar-den scil, Sieves of the folioviing mesh sizes (2.0nrnr. 0.?:i::r, C.C]'ii-;t
'^'^;:--
:n:i i 'll?::',nrl:n-J -- Y\r5'3 '^^t^
ir: l( )-dlC.
Brnra:{ r rro.

1. GrinJ'.:: :l;l s:i'r,:ie to separat: ih.e parti:l:-s.

Pase 2 of 5o i CaiTrpiieC by: l"'ii-s. Il.C. Kayenb: I 0 995 i8: 3E8
 2 Stack the sieves acccrding to the si:e cf nreshes llar5e:t oii tf p ic sni:iiest rresh size at th€ botrcm
J\:o tr:!rrj I
,I
/-\
3 Put the s:ii in:ne sieve v.'ith iarge mesh size. (i.n-.r':r). I I :_* _
Shake ihe sier.,es vigorousl,y. First sieve (2mm)

5 Weigh ihe sail sanrple i-ernaining in each sieve

l-r ':
#*-
Expected Results Second sieve (0.2mm)

Soil particies it,iih snraiier sizes will pass through the sieves with
[arger meshes. Gravel n iil be coilecteci on sieve of mesh size 2nrnr,
ccarse sand irriiI be collected on sierre cf mesh size 0.2rinr, Third sieve (0.02r:'im)
---
Fine sand vvill be cci{ecied cn sierre of ;nesh size 0.02mrn, siit yvili
be coliecteC on sieve of nresh size 0.002mn'i v,,hile ciay v',iil pass
through siei,,e of rnesh size 0.002mr.;r and ccliecieC at the boltom Fou;-th sieve (0.002mm)
-*+"
:::i:::-"_"'.^ , -. , . ,. .. .,:i,_ Fi:i;i'e i: Sieves

Experiment i..3: Describe an experiment that can be concjucteci to oetei-mine incrganic constituenis of
soil using sedinrentation rnethcci.
Aim: To shcvtr t;iat sciI contains inoi-ganic consiiiuents (nii;ieral iriatter) af different sizes.
fttieterials requireo: Garden scil, jar or bottie, Sociiurn carbcnate, v/ater.
Procedure:
1. GrinC the soii sample lo separate the pa:-ticles. Organic mafter
2. Put ii"ie gi"ound sc:l in a jar about 1i3 full.
3. Add 10g of sodium carbonate to separate the soil particies. CIay in
suspension
4. Fill the .jar- ,.rr;th rryater.
5. Cover the mouth of the iar- r,,,ith your hanC anC shaire rhe silt
^^ 6l^-+-
L'Jr l!=,lL).
4 I=:r,s +ho ':r C:: .-le b::.rClf ;Of SC:]-,: hC:;i-S lCf the CCnten:S tj Fine sanC
\r'.. i3-
7. Obsen,e nc\i.J ti'le components setrle. Ccarse sani
Expected results
l-he soii ccn']ncr:its setti: acc:r-Ci;ig to their Cei^,s ties. Tl-: ie rgest arrJ
Gravei
heaviest settle at tne bcitom and the si:lailest sertle at the tcp as shoi.,n
in the figure t3 i,rl-i'r-ight. O:S3r,i: rnett:r fl:a*-s oir t:p. c!:y remeins ir
qr,<n:n<i,r:, <i!t <,:riic h-l-.,u ,-l:ir n:riirlp< ;ir.: <:r4 <:-tip< hoinrrr c;!:
coarse sand settie beioiv fine sanC :;rd grai,ei s€ltie s at ihe bottcm.
iilure l: Sa:;;r.:ri;:i:r-. i-:r ::hcl
Canclusion: Scil ccr;tains n^rrrre:-al matter cf iiffere:,t sires.

1.1"2 Scllvvater
Scil v',ater is found in poi-e spaces ,heti,reen :h,e s:,1 p,"i'ticies.

trynl:!n 24L, tltr-:r,:rrc J in,.rhirI

rrr yrrrrlrr rar=fqr
rrsi!r pc
qJ s2.^rmr^nsn*
vvrrllJvr,!rrL nf
!! c-il
Jvi! ic
rJ imnnrt:nt
rrrilrvrtqriL *n
Lg nl:nf -rntr..-h c:ir
FioirL SiuEiail =n,{
cievelo.pment.
i) lt is a major conipcnent cf the pl"nt cell ii:) it dissclr,,es pla:rt n;trients to be abscr--hed
,.,L:^L ^--i-+
YYtr,Li l a)).>L
;.- f,,^^-i^^ L , -l-.-+-
lu,lL.t',rtt. ;'V ijlstt,).
'L>
ii) lt i'nakes the piant cell turgid :o ar,oiC iv) !t is a rew mater-ial for photosl,nthesis
trirti.r
..\ r+ '-^:-r^^- .1"-^ .^^A l^- .,:\ i+ -^-.1. +i^-^. ^t +----^'--+:^^
\',r lt ll'L'rtr-r'l) :lr: f,:CJ :vl ---'-i^--;^h.^
5C',J",,CLIy,: iJ ,,1 r: LJUI) ^l--r-
Vrarr!-\ irrlUuSr, t'3.'lr,..C(lJ r .^
.-
occur. ar,oid vuiiting.

Pa:e 3 of 65 i Camo[Eed b1,: iiirs. fr{.C. Kaie:rbe C 995 3S5 *iES

Fcrms cf soil vJater 's
i) Superfiuous \A,atei:inis ls tfre soii \.,'aiei- iCi-,;id in iar-ge spac=s rjEi'.\'€rir i"ie sciiS an. particies
neici l|v gr-avitailon forces. This',,"arer is ai,aiia'sie for Fiart use.
ii) i-lygroscopic water: The rn,arerfcunl ir, ihE fc:'r--.r :f a thirr fiiir,:n tne soilsurface. it is lreld tcg='rher
b/ strcr:g fc;'ces nence not ata;lab:3
i;r pla:it is3'
iii) Capiilary water: Tlie voaier..n"'hiah ri:e fr ,;r:-r ii:c gr-lur:C ic the sur-face arrci is readily ai'aiic"-i= -u
nl:nJ-<

n^+^-^.:^-+i ^- iji^r..,-r
UELCI ttltllCLl uii vioLEi oJ o Lvl rll'u -^^+
!rcllL ^; -^i!
Ltl-\Vll

Scil water can b,e CetermineC using two r-ll€thods: heating method ancl aii"-drying me thoC

Exper"iment 1.4: Descri"he an ex-periment that ean be conCucted to determine sc!! rruater ttslng heating
rftethod.
Alm: Tc detei'i-nine the pei'centage of vreter in a soil san:pie'
-:'.a;;:J':::13 :11:i; :Il-'i ra'!'::' r'': :; : ' !: '::
lr4ateriais requi;ed: ',/,'c;oh;;-,9 S:ai:; -'l '-<'
D racarl l r ra .

r-.1-, \rr-;-\
i! rrI -,,-ff,i.at;3i..)
ar =\ cl
Cish arC iec::J'tS r,.:i3h'-.
=16l:
2. Weigh 5Cg fresh gar-Cen scil anC put it cn the e vapci"a:ing iish'
3. Heat .he s'cil gent!Y.
4. 3,emoi'e tre evapoi-atii:g ciish fi'onr the heat and i:t the scii ccrl'
f t.r,.,r;-ta !l-.^ ;.L i'ririi:uii
'^,;'L' -^il ciiiu roar'4;+. r!r "'a;-h+
:n.l iCuvtu rLcrSrr('
:). i-rC\"iii5.i r;iC uil>ii
^J

6. Caiculate\r3ightof rvaterasfolicrvs: \1;eip;hto; freshgcrlieris:.rii -rr'':151:f cf izectedscil.

^a,,-+^.-\-inn
7,Caic'.rlaiet,-re3:i.Centageciihesoil\taterasfoIicr,',s:ffi
Erai"npie: \r'Jeight cf iish alone = ii)g
\{reight of dish, pius fresh garia;r sori = 7CE
\lr'elght cf dis-. ;'l'is h:=te'i sait ='+C,q

-^^ -,,)^ ai^

\tr:eight cf fresh g:r'Je n scli =,'J!l t'')j -- uur
11- 11^ 1a-
:rf^;-Lr
Ittl5i ^a t-^-!-.1
'i !!
.-i!
J!,r = :''-'.yl - :ili -- rug
'.;c-c!l
..t\
- (]rJy^ - -/l ^ *- aa\ -
I r -:-L!
r ! !,f,.1
^i . - --t ^ - _\L;li J,-.jl
V',' e t S ht (,/ lvcterx i 00 ii.?.1()0 - a. /
Pei'ceniage cf vrater in the scll sample \4,eLght of frtsh garden soiL 5og

C*i'rciuslon: i/rl:ter is a constltuent cf soil

Experlnrent 1.4: $escribe an experlrnent that can be consucted to determine soil rc'ater using air drltipg
method.
Airn: To cieiel't-;'ri:^it iite pel.ceriiage uf !(jaiel':'1 a scii raiir';'ie'
MateriaEs requireC: \r/eighing Scaie; Fi-esh gai'ien scii; liier/ spape:"
ProceCure:
irr-. :-...L 4-a,^:-^ -^:l
a
i'r3:3I .f'JS irelll-l 5c,
-^-J^-r=.1 >ull.

Dry the scil sai':,ple by spreading it c;r nevr/spaper fcr two cia 1"s

a
J r'.'eig;-l '.he scil s?:iDle agai:,.
- Calc.*laie v.r=ighi cf v','atei'as icllci,.s: ii'u:;h; .:f fre:;!i::j..rd.;, -si.riJ - i','e:J!:t lf lii d;'ien -;cil
) Caicuiatethepei.centageofthesoii\\,.aterasfoiicrn.s:ffi
Eyailire : cf lreslr {arcer: s:il
"':iql-,t
r(.'eight cf air-d:'ied s:il - irvrrY
_ nn ^
r,-'^iL
VrC 5l,LUi^t,.,^L^-vlGLEl =;5,19 - .:;l-;::CJ

Page 4 of 55 I Cor"npiieC by: lr4rs. lr4,C. Kat'ei:-r-re i :995 ]ctr l:ls

-Percentwater:#-Weightt of wateT'xt]c 50x100
:33.3o/o
weight of fresh gorden. soil I JU

Conclusion: Water is a constituent of soil

1.1.3 Organic matter (Humus)

Organic matter is formed from tHe decomposition of dead plants and animals.

Explain functions of organic matter (humus) in crop production-

o lt binds the soil particles together hence improving soil structure.
o lt contains plant nutrients which impqoves soil fertility.
o lt is dark/black in colour hence raises the soil temperature.
I lt increases activities of microorganisms by providing them with food.
o lt modifies soil pH hence making more nutrients available for plant absorption
r,.-^p;H^-+4 r.n^---iL^--a-^a-imnnrlhrteanhornndrrrtpr{tndatprmineorpanicmattef inSOil
AIM: To find the percentage of humus in a soil sample.
Materials required: Evaporating dish; Weighing scale; Source of heat; Sample of garden soil
Procedure:
L. Weigh 1009 of garden soil.
2. Weigh the evaporating dish and record its mass.
3. Put the soil on the evaporating dish.
4. Heat the soil gently to remove water.
5. Cool and reweigh the soil, then reheat the soil gently until a constant mass is obtained to ensure
that all the water has been evaporated.
6. Heat the soil strongly to red hot until all the hurnus is completely burnt.
7. Cool the soil and re-Weigh it.
8. Calculate weight of ,[&k'as follows: 14/eight of gardensoil - weigl^tt of burnt soil
weisht of humusxtoo
9. calculate the percentage of hurnus in the soil as follows'' 14/eigllt of dry sotl
Example: Weight of dish alone = 109
Weight of dish plus dry soil (after gentle heating) = 6Ag
Weight of dish plus burnt soil (after strong heating) = 409

Weight of dry soil (after gentle heating) = 609 - 10g = 509

Weight of burnt soil = 409 - 10g = 3Ag
Weight of organic matter (humus) = (50 - 30)g = 2gn
20sx100
...percent organic matter =W - : 40o/o
wetght of drY soil 509
Conclusion: Humus/organic matter is a constituent of soil.

1.1.4 Living organisms

These include, rodents, worms, insects, termites and micro-organisms.

Explain any two functions of living organisms in the soil.

. They help in decomposition of organic matter as they feed to release nutrients.
. They make holes into the soil hence increasing soil aeration.
. They mix up the top soil and subsoil accelerating soil formation.
Experiment i-.6: Describe an experiment that can be conducted to show that soil contains living organisms.
Materials required: Two 250cm3 conical flasks; two cork stoppers; fresh garden soil sample; heated soil
sample; muslin bags; strings; and lime water.
Page 5 of 66 | Complied by: Mrs. M.C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388
7

P roced u re
. 1, . .a.- .^:: i^ ^ .*...r;- -*::-n
it.lUj,i -:;---n' --.--'.^
lrc);l3GiJjiif,J:l i;:a l: -5;ltL'crl--- ;. J -:-
--^ -':.. -- i rc:' ,,i-r: rl-ri-..-
rJ t. rL:t c )Lr:'rt.
l. P:.t iOg cf i',ea:e: g3r:er sa;i i:t I ::i'.sii3:?3 a1l:i: :i:': .:l: ir:th a strin3.
f
J,
(r'<r:cr..l
JJ-fr-, :r"i,.q::r
rtr A:z
vJC re,^":':ir=:".=l q::ief Sl,l ;l C.lf i:3,t,fSi:. C:itaifi;fg i:::1e l',atef i:Lt:led A.,

?r,: :rluslin bag ccntaiiing irea:ej s3;l ir ccl-.iaai::.si; :::.:a;:-.i:.3 l:i:e it.tel labeli.i B.
4. Cork'rhe conicaifiasks to n;ake intfn aii'iigi"rt.
5. l-eave the set-tp foi' 12 hcui's.
/^.1._^.,,^ +t--
.
:.
UL:)=l\'= t:_ - ,..-+^-
i';=.:iirs \r\CL:: ;^ __-t^^ I rt--!.
^^^; i LurilL?l
iii =3Ll -^J .-,-^-.1
ri3)\ q':u rc!u'u :ae re3,J,:S, I

Expecteci Results: Ti--e iinre v.,atar in ccnicai Muslin bag

Cork stcppers
';lasl: A {v',!lh fi'esh gai-cen sc;i) i'i':iiky tlrrs
l\4usiin bag ccntainiilg
C+-i
beca use soi I c rga i'iisms :e Ie a se sta rbc n c ic xide containing heatec soil

:ur-::,E ::s:ii'at;ox i'ihiie !ine i^iatei i:i ilask B fresh gari:n fiask
.-.:-L L^^+^^, L---- scil
v, lil :-:e:el S,-iiii
--:l\ Ie:i"ia:qS
-^*-^:-- Cl:af
-i--- L=c: trS€
^ --^ -.;- *.,.,... l.:il.; .i,i:L, ha:r
tlasK 3
Ccnclusion: Sc ll ccnta;ns, ;',in3 c;-ga : isi'.3 Fiask A

Figure 3: Scil living organisms

1.1.5" Soii air 'ontains

Air is icund rn -.he space s be:\rreen the scii pai-t;cies.

ln vshat !ft.ays ;s scii air intpcrtai'et to p[ants?
c For :-espiration Gf the piant ro.ts and organisfi^rs ;n the sx:i.
:--
.-. l.r:!-^--"- :-
i\.:flgg;li:SCii--:l ^:.- :- -^-..^,----J !- ..:!--t--
r,,i:r-G;i)-rlF'rrli:r.
-l--! -L----r:*..
=ii;S;C;1'81-lectO:l:Ia-r=),Ui
Experintent 1.7: Descrihe 3ft €):Freriment that can be c*ndu:ted to Ficve that soll co:'itains air
Aim: Tc nrsve that sJii .ontai:ls a;r.
tir'rqr€lic;:..a
f -+-"-i^l-, / L '*4 --.ir rr ;-
i!:iiJ -i
Jr:.;i, '-*-,
\l.L=: t'r a1 -.- -i:'-:r
--!i.c;,,=r,
n-^ ^^ J.,*^.
1 (, L -.^:zria = lr:ry.',
,o!vivi..:*'-" r^.f <,r:i ir \, :':r
'h+'' F:'_n5_(
! Air b";5bles
L. u'-:--,\= \',\,\;L
Y_r_
Ex*ecteC res'ilts: \., A iumc cf soii
tir r-,riirhlc<..n::.i=q {rxt fiSiit a iufirr ai scii since ali'is =ai:a Figure 4: Sci: ccntain air
'Dy
cispiaced watei.
Corrclusion: S:ii c:::ains air.
f{ov.r can I'ou determine the valume and per€entage ef aii" !n a soii sai"nple?
Experir:,ent i.8: T: ::tei'x-,i1,3'.i^,: ''l:r:13 :i'll perce:,',:3: :: .:r i:' a sa,l sample.
li'icrSiiet: isUuirHu, l-j3.'-l-;alI ::.:33-i';1g a\'.i:,;af:i -.'i ji C'-- 3;lJt;i:.-;.;; i'irc:ei; trr'ii'tr;
n---^^'..-^.
TiULSUUIE.
1
a P;:5C:n'lr :f .'.'aiei' ;:',lc a :::suIl-3 :i"!ni=i A tni 53:::: :f :.r--c:i+c sa:l i-:J ile c-r'':l.der 3
-)

3 :

-,it - -;'
t/easur'rrg * --1,r..
cyiinJei ,l'. -
f
,: t! -

rt .
I tt .'

i-:.]--- f:..
,
a::.
Scli anc
dfater---:.-.i Soil t-*;
.=.=e !::
A B C

Figure 5: FinCing the ,,clume oi air in the strii

]:gr 5 :.i i.6 I Ccirf i:ed by: li1;-s. i"i,i i.:'r':*;:e i I395 i!5 135
Expected results:
is because air has escaped
The final level of water plus soil is below the expected 100cm3 mark. This
reducing the volume of the mixture.
Example: Expected volume of the mixture = 100 cm3
Final reading of the mixture: : B0 crn3
.'. Volume of air : 100cm3 - B0cm3
= 20 cm3
Volume of atrxloo 20cm3x'1 09 naor^
Percent soil air - -
v'olLtme of garden soil 5Ocmr

Conclusion: Soil contains air.

1.2. The soil Profile.

to the bedrock
It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface
A mature
-an10:'1 li'1f"":1":::il-:::',"1: :i::i ii"" - "",
,i-
;;*; il ;;.;";" soil has not exposed to erosion' . Top soil (Horizon A)
Youthful and shallow, poorly developed soil profile is ,g
found where soil forming process has been in action
s,
!
t o q e Sub soil (Horizon B)
g 0rt * g? ,'o
for a short time and where erosion has been active' di- /<a
(Ai
ss €i
&*\ db
The soil profiie has four layers namely: Topsoil; Weathered rock (Horizon C)

Subsoil; Weathered rocks and Parent material' Each

soil layer differs from the others in terms of colour, Parent Material (Horizon D)

structure and mineral composition.

Figure 6: Soil Profile
1.2.1The soil profile and their characteristics

Top soil (Horizon A)

a layer of cultivatable soil. Potential
This is the first layer of the soil profile found on the surface. lt forms
subjected to weathering and
of soil for agricultural use depends on the fertility of this layer. lt is mostly
leaching. lts plant nutrients leach to the lower layers hence it is called layer
of eluviation'
What are the characteristics of top soil?
o lt is dark/black in colour due to the presence of humus'
r lt has more plant roots'
I it is rich in nutrients due to the presence of more organic matter. o lt has more soil organisms'
well aerated. o lt covers a depth of 15-30cm'
. lt is loose and

Sub soil (Horizon 8)

layer of illuviation since nutrients
This layer is below the top soil. lt is also called layer of accumulation or
that have leached down from the top soil are deposited here.
What are the characteristics of sub soi[?
o lt is red or reddish brown usually lighter in colour than top soil because of little organic matter
(humus).
olt is more compact ciue to the weight of top soil hence less aerated than top soil'
olt has larger soil particles than top soil'
reach up to this layer')
olt has few living organisrns and plant roots (roots of only deep-rooted crops
olt is cieePer than toP soil'
olt can form hard pans when it is cultivated in wet cc'nditions using heavl' machinery'
during land preparation' Hard
NIB hard pans are hard impermeable layers that cannot be broken down
pans reduce water Penetration.

Page 7 of 65 | Complied by: Mrs. tr4-C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388

 '.....-
-

'i'--rk,^"-i ..--:-- .
i.;;:.:(L{ql, r!""".} ::L- i tl.r.t *l

l:.ri-i='.1.1: i,i '-.,::l-€l::'.:: t::3=1 i":-.:It::-..ilr:.::l-:'-:::"::

l"'. 13t 3te ti:e rL;;:.-LnI;st;cs i.;,,ae i','.iei- isiii?
j::''l ".: '--j'. -:.':;:':S l=::':'
e : c-;t-.:a,-.: .,::.-:-=: ":";i.:.i:3': :1"-ll3l.:: ,:, l?-*'a: lT?'r:-!
la:'ger:: slze, ;c'i'::'lar.;i:::3 sr,i ::-;f i: :5:::a'l'::e itn! c):f :s:: i: ".e3'.-a'":; 3ia:::t.
"' '1 ''t) -:-:'--,.-:.:; 'l;.2..':=.
E <i"*r .il !-i;:
':,
e lt has ro Grgan;a :i',eitei.
t- :-.- ^r^--^-"_--
! : ti'EiJEl ;'.;'l s;:s:i:.
r it .s h:=,'.i; c: 1-,3.4:^:i a:-id ,:Tii;3I'l-i'lteble :c ,'r'3ttl.
Fare;t rrateriel iHarii:n Di
,i i; als: iefur-rEC as:te *ec i;alr.. lt:s:aiii:i:;:;a:"e.it i-t.:aiiai ::a3;:-3 ls iia ::i:a= :i ,:-.-rga:i::'r',3:'.ai
ci iie sci!. The i,rir;eiii cll'ieLt:f the scii lt:Eids -1:i i::,: ili:,e;'ai a:rsli:u:i:i .-,f '.:: :.:i'e nt :i:i . l"=
c:':,;r cf :l'-e sc,,i ,s.,r:'i::ei:",:ei 51':h: p-.:=:rt l':cl'.
fr'irat ai a 'r.i-;e ciiai a;Ltr is ",is c I pa i er,i i'iiai.rt ,a i?
c il h:s ;-ccirs r,"'hicn are siiii il-,tac inli u'eerh:r-t;].
* The {n'ate r labie is 3:} :i.€ su:iac; cf ttis l"*:ll"
:+ t- i-....-
-
e :l iJ -L^
t;it -j-^^-
J:=l::,. :il=,!'-!;-,,.
^r -k^
-* Ui rcr=l:.

EN* CIF TOPIC

;..:.:1 -.::r 'lCr-.t:'r=i:r.-: l. "..',t '-.r.?.:- li : j:r.-i::::

TOPIC 2: SOIL FERTILITY
soii fertiiity'
ln topic one you have stuciied the five cornponents of soil. These scii components cietermine
and ways of maintaining soil
ln this topic, you will study the differences between a fertile and infertile soil
fertility.
What is a fertile soil?
proper plant growth and sustain
A fertile soil is the one which provides all necessary conditions for
higher quantity and quality crop yields.

2.1 Differences between a fertile and infertile soil

ond infertile soil'
Experiment Z.L: Describe an experiment thot con be conducted to determine a fertile
Aim: To find out the differences between feriiie and infertile soil.
ruler'
Materials Required: A sample of a fertile soil, a sample of an infertile; two tins; rarater,
Procedure:
1. Put fertile soil in tin labelled A.
2. Put an equal amount of infertile soil in tin labelled B'
3. Plant maize seeCs in both tins at the same depth'
4. Water the seeds in each tin regularly using the same amount
of water.
5. \{/ait for 7 days until the seeds germinates'
6. Observe the plants as they grow and note ciifferences'
7. Measure the height of each plant using a ruler on daily basis.
Expected results: The maize seedlings. in fertiie soil have a high
growth rate than seecilings in infertile soil'
Plants in fertile soil have cieep green colour while in those in infertile
soil show chlorosis (yellovring of leaves).
conctusion: A fertile soil promotes fast grov+th of plants since it Figure 8: Tin B with
Figure 7: Tin A with
contains all essential nutrients in right amount. infertile soil
Fertiie soil

what are the differences bet\,areen a fertile soil and infertile soil?
Table 2 Difference between fertile and infertile soil
Fertile soil Infertile soil
o Contains all essential nutrients for proper . May be lacking one or more essential nutrients
plant growth. needed for Ia nt
r Has the right depth depending on the crop . May be shallcw in respect to the crcp.
for strong root h.
o Has the right u'ater holding capaciq/ r May hcld too much or too little water to allow proper
piant
r Free fronr e>lcessive soil borne pests r tr4ay have excesslve soil boi'ne pests and diseases'
diseases.
. Has good porosity hence is well aerated. r Has r poros hence aerated
r Has the right soil pH range. (this makes r tr4ay be too acidlc cr too alkaline' (hence some
more nutrients available for plant nutrients may not be available for plant absorption)
absorption)

2.2 Explain ways of maintaining soil fertility

o Applying organic and in organic fertitisers: to supply nutrients which are depleted from the soil'
o practicing crop rotation: by incluciing legumes in the rotation programme to fix nitrogen in the soil
o practicing agroforestry: since leguminous shrubs such as nsangu fix nitrogen into the soil'
Page 9 of 56 | Complied by: N4rs. tr'l.C. KaYembe | 0 995 385 388
c U!: cf sc.il r:;r:.:r'.'etirn nr,::s.:::,: € : :,:) .-::;'-;. fc:-,:l-l -:i: -.; ::c. :: :::.e:.: :::l:'-::1 :'.: '

n Li:i'ients ihr:; gir sc,ii e;-csi,:::.

e h'rodift,lng soil pl.i: b'" al!':,':i :^ I-,i'"-:-3 =i:. -r] ::l::e=se "'.'a:;:bi,i:i'cf r.;:i-:e:,ts': '-r,: s:1.. T:,.s
=,
arsc i^,:reas:-. =cilt :ies:f '::,:-::-*=a-.::- j,.r;:r :3c-:1p:3::lS:r.': l-r3'-ltrar: ii> :'::c3=:i.
a FrarCtiCirgmi>:eci ci-cpp:rrg: ?,':'t:. --:,--i=i:::"':-:,3::r,l:f:s:;; ,,,':=ri::.reSareCl-,3 li'-lr=: ipS
gicr,n. il ais; p:'c,'iies a gr,:i:::i c:,.:3t'::,:ijiiilti srii ercs!cl:.
e T"imelyweed ccntrol: to pi-ei,enl rei:lei'cir :f t:-trienis f;o:r the slil since tteeds abs::b n;ir.:lts.
e i.4irlinrunr tillage: r-f tr'c,c lcsii;J'-,1:;:{;:;i i::'u;':ir€:-,.s:e:;';;es siii e;-csi:n i:us:::i'=.::::
::- ,;';.^,tr ^i <,^,ii r: r-r!.r.:t

2.3 C[assificatiCIn of fertillsers

ihere are tv.,o tr'3€s cf ier:llis:r-s :ar:r,' ;) 3-;aric f:r"liiise rs; ii lr,crgani: fei-tilise;-s
2.3.3" Orga nic fertiIisers
if L?::3,t Sai-j-:::t'!E: i:ti -I::lL:ili.l .: .ai a !',-ri:: ; l:: l5ir,: c!-r-i:-1 ,J il,: ).r:r !:-r:u!'tr1 y a,'- tr!,-r;-,i.]"

-^i^ t^atli^^--

:i G;ee:r nan,Ji'e: it ccnsisls lf g:=:,i ::i,:.ts SuJi as \\':ejs a;-,J iegu:i:ic;5 cr3is \-.'n'cr, 3:: gr-i'. ir
s:er;fi:ally io b:5uri:i iit::he s:;! :::;'j:;':c l:c:*,p:se a;:j rel=as: i^,uti-'=::s.
li i .rq-6;a1i :^,a:,:l':rF\'[',{i. it:s:,-,:3f;-c-x a-.:n=-l:xc:-e:3 i:-:3 a:ld urll-'i and icliel i:;i:i".'; is:iri
ilnoi,'i^r as khcla n'ranure.
VJhat factors affect quaiiqr cf FYI/i?
c Ti.pe *f tFre anima!: l,lcn runiina::t :,ni:':ais procuce go*C qu:iil\i ryranure because they a:-e feC cr
co nce:,traies.

c A.ge of the animal: \'cu;r3 a:i:-,ai, r:il'-ln ,:+" :'*eli5' ivr,l i'e::'-rse th:li i::d:ts rse up ;rcst li iL:
I^..+-;^6+^
lu !t !c I I !--.

c F.g;eCf theFYI"ri:ClJandi,'tll t'a:::-:-,2*.-'.2 'i=Saf :'::-'litn ii::e;tc::i":LsiT::i'=:','a:iabl:-u::-i:",:S

-q n.r^.L^J
:l'rcLtlUJ
.t L'-L ^ - r: ="'
-+^-^"" 1l:i.i--:':.1
Ul:LU'.688' i. .-r::-".:,:d ',f3t.- 's si::e:'L:,1:i- sh:d ::c::se'-l':Ie ir'r:
leach;ng. I-1,,., ;uality F\,'ii'i ;s p::r:.:a: 'f ::::-e: in ;1. cpt:t li:ae v, l-,3re lt"::::g c:c'r;s.
6 Type cf [ltter used: i,,l*h qu:lir,.Ff .1iis ci:ialr,ec ii ixaiei'ie:s used as i!t:er can i:cc-l',p:se eas:'t a:l] is
.i-r.^ -^
cL:: LU :*,>J, ,.^-P^
-r-..^.i^ i L.;-'t; '.r:-^
ir lt =.

e Qualitycffeed: ti^,el",q:'lsr:i':e:-:';t.:f ie:jE:i::r'.c::,":.ials'.:ei-r!=!":::li^,:c.ual:tln1ailur€r:ll.ce3.

*^.^.i^! - ::1.- r:--t-1-
^\ '-:.,;^- ---nul -.*^:-.
;^,"-.^-"-.;1.,. -) r,:./.,.lS ^"--ri^
ri <. i,:- i ' lJ -:r ,3i) .:''c u. icl . ,c'r,l/ l .'.v. r=. .
=,-G: =J
 vi) They can scorch plants if not well decomposed.
2.3.2 lnorganic fertilisers
These are fertilisers which are chemlcally made in industries. They are also called chemical fertilisers
lnorganic fertilisers are classified in two ways based on nutrient composition and on soil reaction.
1. Classification of in organic fertilisers based on nutrient composition
Two types of fertilisers based on nutrient composition are straight and compound fertilisers.
a) Straight fertilisers: These are fertilisers that contain only one of the three primary macro nutrients
(Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium).
Cqteqories of straiah
i. Nitrogenous fertilisers: These are fertilisers that contain only nitrogen.
Cha racteristics of nitrogenous fertilisers
. They are readily soluble in water.
r Thev are hiehlv volatile (chanee into easeous) when aonlied to drv soil.
. They are highly leached hence should be applied when rain is not much and when plant roots
are fully developed.
o lt is hygroscopic (tendency to absorb moisture from the surrounding) and this causes them to
stick together in lumps hence they should be stored under dry condition and for short time.
. They scorch (burn) the plants upon contact.
. They have a short residual effect so they need to be applied from time to time.
. They are highly corrosive hence avoid direct contact with plant leaves and roots.
Examples of nitrogenous fertilisers: Urea, CAN, Sulphate of Ammonia, Ammonium Nitrate
Table 3: Characteristics of different nitro ous fertilizers
Cha racteristics of d ifferent nitrogenous ferti lise rs
Urea CAN
It contains 46% nitrogen. It contains a 76-78% Nitrogen.
it is granular, white in colour. I
lt is granular and greyish in colour.
It is also used in processing livestock feed. l
it is hygroscopic in nature.
It is easily Ieached. It is a basic fertiliser because of the presence of
It is hygroscopic. calcium.
It is soluble in water.
It is highly volatile. (lt can change into gaseous form
and esca into atmosphere)
Sulphate of Amrnonia Ammonium Nitrate
It contains 21?6 nitrogen. it is a mixture of Amrnonium and Nitrate.
It has a white crystalline appearance. It contains 35 % amrnonium and 359'o nitrate
It is highly volatile. It has a white crystalline appearance.
It an acid inducing fertiliser. It is highly explcsive
Arnmonium Sulphate Nitrate
It is a mixture of sulphate of Ammonia and Ammonium Nitrate.
It contains 26% nitrogen in nitrate form, 19.5% nitrogen in ammonia form and 13.5% N in Sulphur form
It is yellow or orange in colour.
It is granular.
It is acidic and hygroscopic in nature.

ii. Phosphatic fertilisers: These fertilisers contain only phosphorus

Characteristics of Phosphatic fertilisers
. They are not easily leached hence they can be applied during planting when rainfall is high
. They are slightly soluble in water.

Page 11 of 66 | Complied by: l\4rs. M.C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388

 c
r ln;r^inir-
,i aL,'+
qr,:iq nhncnnr:'r ,< in rr" i+riiiisei-,s alt'ei-:ed i:t3 ii'lsciubie ccmilc'inCs an'C beacme
L J-"-/

fi>lei a nC ;:i-ra\,'a i iable fc r' : i, :,t a bs : r-pti:r.

. ii has a icilg r-e-qiciuai effect o;': ihe scil ail c3n he t';a;i=cie to piants iong afte;" i:s ap;iicat;cn.
c They have a slight scctching effeci.
Exan::ples of Phosphatic fertilisers: Sirgie s-f,.rp*rlspha::; D::.;nie and triple superphospn:te; Scoa
phcsphate, Basic siag, Ammtrrir.:m Fhoslheie, ].3.P.
Tabie 4: Cnaie::er!s'-;ts cf i;; ere:ri F:,l:3ra:i:':":. ;-':':
L* f-^nrrh[c:r.c{ tri t ^- hate
Qing[a ctr hate
:t ciria;i^,s pr:sph::us
=:,i su.P:":i"
t is g:arula:' and gre'g ia c lcur.
it is gra;ruiai, Ci€3ffiy'-vrh;:e il',hl'.ti- tial a:.;l: :- ;o :ia : :'ts 4?- 4]or', phc sph c :us.
!L '-15:UlU-:=
- - l..L l- i-
l:( rr !^. . :r<^,1..k,+ ,'r
--=- Lva,'iiJleJlL i:r :,^l-j.: ,c:ils
:rd ::',:i: s.:=i' phtsPl::::i. \lC.=l GLrJr

it is a neutral fert!iiser. ii lias nc aciC;fY;ng eff::t.

:t :3:t:iis i8-2l9L PhcsP:-,:: -.1s.

lS rr l)JrLiu'E 9-.qiu JJ,,i.

'L 'ir

Soda phosphate 9*Jl!,IVD

!t contains 20oz'o Pncsphcrr.rs.

I lt is grey in coiour and p,:wd 3i'f - It cGiitai:s i5-15?'c Phos phcrus ai':d 40-337c itme

::i.
P:tassic;=i't';ise rs
These iertiiis:i-s contain pciassium. Scurces of ,;cia:siurn a;"e:ci'u
je salts, sa3 !'i,'ee:s, v.'c'oi as;^'es, arC
ji-ess,ng iei-tiiiser.
rotassium c,3ntaining rocks. They are eppiiej as tc:l-
Characteristics of Patasslc fertiiisers
& The,!,are nroderateiv soiuLle in vi.atei'. e The.v have a mcderate scorchiirg efi'ect.

Examp[es of Pctassic fertiiisers

i,.{uriate of Pctash (Potassiu:l chior-ide), Pc:assiu,-n Suiphate (Sulphate of :ctash}

Tabie 5: Chararelisiics cf iliie:eni P':ia:slc i:r-t:r,:e:s

ilnt=crilm (r iinl':t: i +-- -f t
lJtruriat: of Fctash Fotassium chlcriie I
it is a ci-ystaliir:e
i'r lS i'i1:"-:Sr r:: i-, C:i:';r
t+ '.- i.,--^-^- *l-
,,- i5 ll)'Er u)L! F':L.

il has no res!d;ai :ifeci :r '.lie s:ri

it is v.'ater solu'51e.
it ccnrains 50?'i pliash.
;r. ;"rd feriii
;'l
n.mnlcto
fvui!,F,! {,:riilica!-< ri:-ir : l :he ::,:3: p:,:-*,::,' :']3:rc r-t-ier;is. ili':l:g::t, l::''pi:1"'ts :l:
Potass;um.) ExarnPi 3s cf cc::t3^-^.r {.;iiiisa.:'s ?;:: li;2i:3'4S, il:{5:J, ?:13:-5,Ccnp1!nl A},
T-re ei::ieri.s 3i-e axpressec iii ::rce"'itag3 il'"1'ls
4:18:15 (Ccmpcunci 3), ani E:'r8:5 iCcr.rp;u:,: Di.
f,-r.:1;23 .,tr ?ll:f0:0 i,aS 2i".c r\i+t-::;:n Z]:,c iii:s:rl:uS a:^.3 Ci!:r:t'::l^..

7. Classifica.ticn of in arganic fertiiisers based on soii reacticn

:L^-^----t-..^-.,..(nr:-p"iiii:::.;:c:j-r:-.:
ll;eiC 3,= Lr; CC -\ -=tru' Lsr- r'J-'r \'r-- :.*l: ,::,::C::,;:S::::laf,::il=S:a:S:1.:.:;:l=[il,SefS baS.C

n^^:^ tr^-!:i;---- r. r,^..*-- I E-, -a-:l: - -. --

Acicir fertiiissrs
l r=5= cii.c .: .:cr: -.::l
-.-
'i.ll-tc5€: 5-:: ^^'.^i-
- -.-) :,t.;' r =>
-^'t .
ir^..^l.r^l: c :l: h'-';' | !*". ^ -il
_. ;i.,_!..
., ,- i ..L_::
* r. _,r_.E.,:i:.\
r.': _l::-1 -
--.
\ r :a.3rr-a-iQ ::.:. e

Faae 12 rt 55 | C':r-;lied r1': li'l:s. l,{.i. i'.:1'::r-,:e I 3:95 i'i5 338

 Adva ntages of inorganic fertilisers
. They are less bulky hence easy to apply and transport.
. They contain high levels of nutrients per unit weight.
. They release nutrients immediately once applied hence crops respond fast to the fertiliser application.
. They do not need a lot of labour during application since they are not bulky.
. They contain known types and quantity of plant nutrients hence give farmers a chance to choose the
right type of fertiliser for their soil.
Disadvantages of inorganic fertilisers
o They are expensive to buy. o They may cause soil and water pollution.
r They require specialskills to store and handle. r Nutrients from the fertiliser sample may easily
. They only supply particular nutrients. leach during heavy rains.
. They may damage crops if not properly applied. o They may alter soil pH if applied for a long time
o TheV do not improve soil structure. hence inhibiting activities of soil organisms.

Review questions
1. A farmer applied 250Kg urea fertiliser in his maize garden. Use the information to answer
questions that follow:
a. Name one nutrient supplied by Urea fertilizer in the soil.
b. Calculate amount of the nutrient supplied by Urea fertilizer in the soil.
c. Give any one role of the nutrient named in 'a' above in maize production.
2. A teacher brought the following materials to a form two class: 2 tins, a sample of fertile soil, a
sample of infertile soils, water, maize seeds. Describe an experimentthat can be conducted to
find out the differences between two soil samples.
3. Which of the following ways is an advantage of inorganic fertilizer?
A. The supply all essential nutrients C. They maintain soil structure
B. They have a higher concentration of D. They regulate soil temperatui"e
n utrie nts

END OF TOPIC

TOPIC 3: AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

ln form one, you learnt that climate is one of the important factors that affect agricultural production.
Change in climate causes negative effects on agricultural production and human life. ln this topic you will
study the meaning of climate change, causes and effects of climate change.

3.1 Meaning of climate change

Climate change is the change in weather patterns of a particular area.
3.2 What are the causes of climate change?
There are two main causes of climate change. These are natural causes and human activities.
a) Natural causes:
i. Volcanic eruptions which lead to the release of ash and sulphur dioxide gas into the
atmosphere. The gases emitted into the atmosphere causes global warming.
ii. Change in solar radiation (energy emitted by the sun) there are at times when a lot of energy
is produced by the sun causing increase in temperature whereas there are times when heat
produced is little. This causes constant climate changes"

Page 13 of 55 | Complied by: Mrs. tM.C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388

 ;ii fhar.se in earti'S Crf':t afiUn':::e:';l aI€=',€S:::;ertn:e rn e-nCU;it Cf S';nligi-'t
li:ai
re:ci:es ii-,e €artll's s;itac:.
greer'5oJie geses icari:t-''n crcxide'
bi Huinan actiyities: These ariivit!es;'e:..r;t,il accr;"1^,liai.:i::f
::i:,ei-e. :",:.'r;fiu;l':a.i-::'i:s ::': :iirc;' :>':Je) '''i ; s': 'r' th:
'::-i:r:*'at-irr cf a=:;s:lrs irunai;
gi:'*aii",';irn':1qt' The fciiowing ale
.lri,fspi-r3re. These gree r,hcuse gases airc ;e:cscis ceuse
activities rvhich cause climale change'
to abscrb
i. Deicr-esiation in ir-yiirg r.c cieate mai-e land foi- larr,iing. This :esuits in less ti'ees caus:r-'3
up cf carb:r cicxiie
cai-bcn dicxice fr c.n ihe atmo-r;3,ere This resuits ln buiiiir,g
-f^L^l
3i'-:'al v;armlilg.
;oel rei:ases aer:scis ii,',-'r ths at;Icsphere' Ti:'ese aei-cscis
;i. 3ur-;.lrng of fossit fueis and rniiiing
t:apsolarraiiaiirnhenceiaisinggicbalierriperetu:e'
ur'hiCh ca'lSes gicbal
Exhaust fumes frcnr engine reieases a*:"osois i;rta ihe
i;i. alnosphere
rr.,a rnr ing.
i:i 3'-r-r'!:: ;'ii -'i -'tr'i-i"r '"r !:1'J' rt * : ''"' '- -*- c--
iv. ll-,,jU:t:ial ;l':-3'-aSSeS i";S!iI
use in ref:-igeratci's an'j
Fi-oCucti:n of chloiciiuci'ccar,h*ns ia gr-eei-lh:use gasi fci'i;::ustt'i;i
as eir ccnditicnii-rg ccli:pounds)
".r. En.,ission cf r,rethene gas {a greerhcuse gas) frci:r :i;estion ln ii""estock and ceccr"r:positicn
cf iivestock kept'
cf organic matter. The hign thu hu*,=n popuiatic:r ihe high the nui-nber
-i-his
resuiis in production *l r*:= i"i:eth''iie gas'
i'i. Pocragr'icuituralp:"act!cesiike:
-Cuitiuaiingthescilv"hentocd+rresultsinrelEaseofae::::isirfc:nrcfdustpafiiclesiito
t'c
L 'c oa-a- - -- L -_^
' :t-''i5Pt i=' ='
greeii-1ouse
- [xcessi".,e use cf in;i"ga:ric feriiiiser"s;'esuits in prc:;c:icn of nii:c:^s:xide {a
r:<\
bs*l'

3.3, iffects sf cllniate change.

3.3.i \tfhat are the effects sf ciini:te change :n land?
e -::: .f r:i:Iat::r beca:s::::-::i':f := ll'" ' ':ari-rg l':':5;:-e e:;:s;:'3 "1::i:si:i'
- i*.r-,,-.,+.,
€ Lri --'='t*: 1.,, <ncliE jgs to i=fcresiaiion.
'" VliJEt
c increas€ lrr oacurrence cf fiO,:sS drie io Vei'.v heaulr ra!niaii i:.i'i''';:g a::.;r3 la:'C lh:c;rgn s-rri erOsiOn

a:: fcrmaticl'i cf gullies.

c )rying up cf rivers, streai-ns and lakes cue i3 i'ecuce.i i;'rflllraticn'
e i_ailisli.ies anc inujslices oc:ui'resulling i:r i:nc cegraiati*n'
---^Ll^ -^i*tr-.r! ).,^ L- )-;-c: -+-':-x
e Li-:ali; l-i:i'i=.t i.JE L'J -:,ui:)-oliu'r'
o 5,:li iigiacalior oue ic scii e :'csiln ie;iil:g tc ir:s cf ia-c fci' "itii'ei'i3i"r'
e LanC bec::nes a oesei-t Cue io lcss of \,egeta:icn as a i"esuit cf ercught ai'ii inci-ease ir:en:'ei'3:Li'e'
* \irlti;ig;f giac:er-s:n.d e>lpaision C'f SEa v"a:er iei':ls ;::creaStS ri:1 iif r"ater ieaiinq tc flocds'
e ii-r:r-ea5ed strll:^,s sulh as i,rriicanes :i,i :i'c!c:res j:e :r glc::l
',''':'; niilig vu'i-ricil is lausii-iE iieated air :o

i'ise ,-p a:d :epl:ce: b1'a ,'i:.ent -ass o{ s:l:r'g i^"ir'J'

3.3.2 Yi'het are the effects af ciirnate cltenge on crcps?
e iirci-ease i;.i ter.,:-rperature ::esuits in r:^,.r.iriplicaticri cf pESts iariiage c:'ips :'eiu-irg :i-l;l
.!i*'nici i.'eids'

c increa-<ed i,u'eeds :L fieics ir:-..ce reiu:iig crip i'iei3s'

e fri-aiic raii ,faii anil di-cught ieaij io t;iai ci-c'p failure nenCe i:'t cr:ip )';e ':s'
r l:.cl::se,j I ailsl:ll-l i','l^,i:r^. :z--'?.?= ::: : s iel - :i:g''i=i:s'
o Fl:cis v.':,!c: Car:,ages ci"cps rei'J'lr'g i';;-iis'
* '-a::s,ij:5 .r'lc :::: s,i::s ,"1'':L' :'e-iiil\'s :;':':j -:l-:;:3 ' 'e -='
* Urpr-eClcteiJie rteathei- p;ftei-:ts lea'".e farners unabie to maile rhe r-ight iecisicn e.g',:ii'rte f:'i-
ia:-'C

;::;.:rai cr a:d Pi::::"= sf :;' s -;l-:': :::: :' l ':":-''

Pase i4 ct66 i q6;1;:i.ei b;-: !'r:. r:3,=r:le i t995 -li53ES
"1'
7

. Strong winds which damage crops hence low crop production.

o Climate change may make crops once suitable for an area be unsuitable and unproductive in that
particular area.
o lrrigation becomes difficult due to drying up of rivers or siltation this results in low crop production.
3.3.3 What are the effects of climate change on livestock?
. Lack of drinking water due to drying up of rivers and wells leading to low livestock production.
r lncreased temperature may induce heat stress in livestock reducing feed intake resulting in lowering of
livestock growth and production.
o lncreased temperature leads to faster multiplication of livestock parasites such as ticks and tsetse flies
leading to many diseases hence low livestock production.
o Drying up of water reservoirs due to excessive evaporation as a result of very high temperatures. This
makes fish farming difficult hence low fish production.
r Low rainfalland drought lead to low pasture production this leads to low livestock production due to
lack of teed.
. Climate change causes some pasture species to flower faster and becoming less digestible due to high
fibre content this reduces livestock production.
3.3.4 What are the effects of climate change on livelihood?
r Floods leads to water pollution and low-quality water resulting in spreading of water borne diseases
such as dysentery and cholera.
o Low water levels reduce generation of hydroelectric power this negatively affects industries. The result
is reduction of employment rate hence low living standards.

" Floods leads to destruction of fish ponds reducing income of fish farmers.
. Droughts/erratic rainfall/ results in crop failure hence food insecurity.
" Floods causes siltation of water bodies lowering their capacity to hold water hence difficult to pump
water for irrigation this reduces crop production leading to food insecurity.
o Floods leads to displacement of people, loss of lives and property hence low living standards.
o Floods destroys crops and livestock so there is little surplus for sale thus reduced income.
" People walk long distances to fetch water for domestic purposes and for their livestock to drink.
r Formation of deserts reduces land for farming hence low crop production and making the land less
habitable and less productive.
o lncrease in temperature results in multiplication of disease-causing organisms e.9., mosqultoes which
carry malaria.
o Low water levels force women to travel long distances to fetch water this reduces time for farming thus
reduced farm labour which leads to low agricultural production.
o Drought reduces vegetative growth hence fuel wood, timber/ poles for construction are scarce.
. Floods may also damage water pipes hence causing shortage of clean water.
Review questions
1. Describe any two human activities that causes climate change.
2. Describe any two ways in which climate change affects livelihood.

END OF TOPIC

Page 15 of 66 | Complied by: Mrs. l\4.C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388

7

TOPTC 4: f [tRiGATION
iir the piei ious iesscr-. ic:li a:,,.r-, ei'ec'-s c;';ltr:laie cha::ge a:i sc:ne rilre ::r are e::atic rainfair ani
ie a:-i*,-
i:r;-:=:s
;ir;ught, ,.,,h'clr i-:luC€s CIop ::::, ,,r::i;:,. l:, iL:s 1;pi: ,':u "r'il lea:-r ab:;: i:rlgaticr -"': :l: '.' ':i h:'p
j : j'
lC.f,\,e.Co:ri:',iiS elieC:, lh: , a:;: -5 5, -i:e i-:s Cf :-i'r3a'-iri., 3:'"axt;3:S an :iSaC 'ai:aa:S :i =aCi =:-':
What is the meaning of the ter"m irrigation?
!t refers to artificial appiication of r,,iater tc cr3ps rr"'hen i'ainfall is insufficient, uni:eliabie :r' ;rct aVail:bie.
4.1 [mpcrtance of irrigaticn
c lt is used to suppien-rent ir:adequate rainfail in criticai stages of crop gro$'th such as dui-ing flov''ering
and soo;t after ira::splaniing ci-cls'
. it enables gr-owing of ci'ops dui-ing drcught and a dry speiicr when rainfaii is'.;ni-aiiabie.
c it enabies gi'cnring of crops in special siructures such as green ncuses'
r Enables farmers tc get incorne and food all year i'ound anC agro indusiries caii easiiy get ravJ
t- .;-- ^i _..+ +:^...--?
I rSLCllJ:) LI .iuu&lrJJL -''E I-1"

e lrrigaticn is used to n:ash dov,rn excess saits from the soil hence inrproving its pi-ociuct;r'ity.
r tt is used to appiy fertiiisers and pesticicies by adding thern to irrigation water'

4.2 Systems of irr:igation

An !rrigation sySteir is a set- up ih=t is used In the application of i,,'ate;'to the crop;:=lJs auic=aticaill'.
__f,
^-^ Li*^^ - ui
^t:--;-^';^_ _-*^l
' c
'J^-^ r--t-^'ti^'''
.lr;EC:r-.:r,,:,,,3ii'.5'Ji"iaae;i'rig:aio:r; u'i=irec-
^''^-L^-J iiilSdt)u;l
"e-1-'Lr^* qr:ul ]:rp lt:lScLrL"i'
^_:_:--:--_i^_
rr,:re
=L-.-^ src LiirEE:!)L=r:15

4.2.1 rface Ir'rigation

Su
This is a methcd cf irrigating c:-cps i,rhere by i,.,aiei" moves on ihe surface cf the soil li'cm the water soiji-ce
to the crcps themseli'es thr*ugh canaisl chanrr:is-
Types of sgrface irrigation: (i) iur;-o+; ir-rigation (ii) ba:irr irrigatiorr (riii Flooc i;-r-igation
ii./ .Fr*'rrroiv irrieaticn
l-lovl dces furrcw irrlgaticrt v.'orl<?
Tne systenr dir-ects \.u.ater fro:n ihe \,r,ater s,3urc= th:cugh canals to ihe fr,rrov,s ;i-,aCe :n:lre fieict in suln
a

lt,ay that vr,ater ficws inrcugh iire'ior:e cf grav;t1: tc the end of the fieiC, as ii!'at,er fior"'s a!r:t"rg tht f';rrc''v
i:
wets the soil cn the ridge v":here crcps ai-e pianted. t,,i/B the furrows snould be made ailng the contour to
ininii'ntse scii e;"csicn. fi4ost cr3ps can be ii'riga:ei usir',g furrovr irri3a:icn'
Advantages of funr"ow irrigaticn
c lt,s;h:ap ic establ'sh a:,j ";:ai:ia:r-
e lt i'equi:-es less skiiis since ii ;s nct cc:r"'pii:a-.tJ'
e !t i-educes fung:l C,sEase: such ss blight because ieaves do not coi'ne !n conlact tt'jth r'vater.
DisaCvantages cf fui:row !rrigation
c S:,i =;-csi:r, i-,-,=y be CauS=;' is i1,g ilr'rO\vS 3:-e t:'J S:iap'
c it neeis a lct cf i\,.aiEr since s,r.:i= ,,iatcr is icst ih:o;gh evaPcraiicn ani seepa3e.
c ir i-equii-es a gentle slop;ng i:i;d so tnat iiie:ei'can fi:w un:=r the f:"cs :; gi-a';,i'1'
t Saiis ryiai, eccumulate in ihe f'uri-;-cv".
r it is suitabie for heavy sciis iciai,) ,"t,,th icvo i;,iiltration rate so ihat',tatei" reiriai:,s c'n the sui-fac:.
c Piants at tne enc of :he riige i"r,ay get iess r,,,ater cjue to sae pa3e.
ii) Sasin irrlSaticn
ll:.'; cses bas:r i:rigati::t tic r[;?
*-313 1'{-;::j :?C-; ::a:'-::'--u;': a C-'i:i. ::J':':; The
l-,i: S}.Sie..l :.1::l: \,,'=ieI::l-:, lL€ li--l€ i: :=:i",S
i:r,el cf \.\raier in e ach basin is :ontroiieC Lr: a siu.i:e gare clnstru::=d at tr= ::j lf -'=:h feedtr chenne
i n','

Fage i6:;55 i CcmelieC 5.v: ii{rs :rt C. !'{ave:'rle I 0 995 336 -{88
 method. N/B a basin is a levelled
opening and closing it accordingly. Citrus fruit trees are irrigated using this
ai.ea of land surroundeci by earth embankments called a dyke or
ievee.

Advantages of basin irrigation

. lt is cheap to construct and maintain. o Water is directed where it is needed hence controlling weed
. lt does not require a lot of skills. growth'
Disadvantages of basin irrigation
. There is high chance of water- borne diseases such as bilharzia and malaria'
. lt requires a lot of water since a lot of water is lost through evaporation and see page'
o lt is suitable for heavy (clay)soilwith low infiltration rate/ not suitable in sandy soils'
r Use of farm machinery is difficult because of the basins'
o lt requires a lot of labour to construct the basins'
o lt results in accumulation of salts in the basins'
iiil Elnnd irrication
How does flood irrigation work?
The system directs waterfrom the source to the field through channels
without being controlled so that it
Flood irrigation is also called wild
completely covers the whole field (the field is submerged) allthe time.
grow in flooded fields'
flooding. Rice can be irrigated using flood irrigation since rice can
Advantages of flood irrigation
o lt is cheap to establish. . Soil fertility is improved through silt deposits'
o lt requires less skillto operate. ' lt may be used to flush out excess salts from the soil'
Disadvantages of flood irrigation
. lt requires a lot of water. o lt can only be practiced in flat areas so that
o lt can only be used to irrigate crops that can grow in water can be flooded
evenly on the whole
water logged areas. farm'
o lt can only be practiced in heavy soils such as clay scils o There is risk of soil
erosicn'
with high water retention capacity'
Table 7: Advan and Limitations of surface tion
Advantages Limitations
a It does not require a lot of skills since it is easy to
r It needs a lot of water in order to be erfective'

understand and oPerate. o lt is suitable for heavy soils (clay) with low
a The energy for surface irrigation system comes infiltration rate so that water remains on the
from gravity which is free. su riace.
a It is not affected by the quality of water being o lt is labcur intensive.
used.
. lt can cause soil erosion.
a The diseases spread by irrigation is minimised r lt can result in accumulaticn of salts in the soil
since the water does not come in contact with hence the soil becomes saline.
crop {eaves.
O It is ch to establish mana and maintain.

4.2.2 Overhead irrigation

spray that fails on reaves rike rainfall' The
This is the system of apprying water to crops in the form of a
pipe, ii) Use of a watering can, iii) Use of sprinklers'
system can be practiced in three ways. i) Use of a hose
scale'
N/B Use of a hosepipe and a watering can is suitable on a small

Page 17 of 56 | Complied by: Mrs. 1"4'C' Kayembe | 0 995 385 388

l-iovu. dces averhead i:';:l6atitn r.,;srir?
The s;stenr sunpiii \i,r?ipi- io crci-is eiii€i rJs -g 3
hlrc=n:lsli,:.c::r:..--^.;^,^.|-,...,.:,^*:
r,rr-\v p:r'-, trL,-*: .,5'-=!.: o,rJ )J: ;r.'\.:r: , : (.: 'tj
.f

oi sprays falling cn tne .i'cF,s iike i'ainfail.

i{orv does a hcse nipe a,'ld a waterinA can y,'Grk as

overhead irrigaticn? .{\ 'r,!
\:{tri ^\l'tI \,1'!:
A rrate;"ing can is used io calr\' rlr'a:ei' il-crr :ne
sou:ce tc the fieid. Wa:er is rhen fcr-ced c-i ihrough ;igure 9: a man v,,ith
thc tirp roco hr, c!:r':rg -is r:n <r ii::i -aa ,1,::!: Figure 1.0: A man with nose pip:
wate!'ing can
falls on crcps iif,.e r-ainfail.
A hisepipe Celii,ers ttai:r ii-c:r., t:,= 3i:::= l; il-,r liell ani i.';aieI i-. ':r-:= j o*i :f : a :lp€ a:,1 faiis 3il cr-aps
iilre rainfaii. iSee figures 9 and 10 respecrilri\ :"

Ja:,e : S-rlvr S :Ci :i-,ia 35 Ci U5 A NCSC ::. 1 a ,',': -::.1:{ rc:-1 :S il'.=if-'3:S C: - v=if.i3C lf i-:aaitu:'.
r
"3,,^-+^*^-
HUTGiiLC}1E) DiseCvantages
iii:e equ:pn:e:.t is ea:ytc carrl ta ax.i fr-c=:he f!eiJ.
i;\ Th" pn r;aaoni c;n -:<ir.r h= n ;re i:<od 11^-i !r^:! 121.{,. 1-; ;\1-q

t.i== J i !='
I-^-.;- -L^-
ll .S Lil=c 3e ir ^!..f,

4.2.3 Sprinkler irrigaiian

['ioru+ dces spriniiler Irrlgation L,".ork?
Th€si,s'.eins-pp]tv,a::ii.lci'::sli i'rI:,.::sli:rls:f i,i'-::":l:'.1 :=irc.\'arl,trecr;n;'.i^,1:uglra::'::-':;ig
sp;,ikier I;lle la::liaii. \fr'aterfioir,,,s to rhe f!=i: tir;-i.-3i, ar-:e r,:ain ;,:pe ai i-rgh prcssu;-e and is ois:ri:-rte;
t: r,a;-i:i's parts of iire fielC L'sing let::ar :ip:s rvlich ai'e cci"lnectei tc the rnain pipe. Ve:-tical pipes:ake
" -r "
- -^J J!--..,1,.--
Ai..^-!^^^^
hut c:iloBg>

r Disilibuticn cf i,.'a:er n;iy be L:revei'r cn a v!'i!id I'

-" ) .

clt ir::'e:s:s f-.r:;ai c:se::es e.g. :!i;r:i i:

l- -^- j:= i^
-,"1 c--,d:-- *r=!c i'.=-€l --^it-a
lS e::l;eC C',Il-:g.'35.
t !l re:.1!-es lloC quzi':',r ''.e:ei free ;:c:i: s:l;j
impuriiies cil"iei'i.l,:se the n:zzies i,,'iil b:
ilc:kei.
G:: i( i)--,-:-i:, :-a -.,','1.:'--.-i-i,i:1q -.'rcq -,- :
-
^ - I ^. -i*+-;.^ :; - *
1:.* .':=::i-.:. I r:,:,.,.
Table 10: Acivantages and disacjvanta of dri tr ation
Advantages of dri I on. Di of dri Iril tion.
. lt ensui-es that watei. reaches plant roots whe;'e it is needed since it is r lt is expensive to instail and
suoplied directly at the root zone. maintain the pipes and PumPs.
r lt reduces loss of water due to evaporation hence avclds salt e lt requires high level of skill to install

accurnulation on the soil. the pipes.

. lt uses water economically hence suitable for dry areas rryhere water is o The water must be free from
sca rce. impurities to prevent blockage of
o !t reduces fungal diseases since water is not applied on the leaves. the perforations.
o lt does not require levelling of the land i.e. can be used even on sloping o lt requires loam and ciay soils with

land. This is possible because water is able to flow against the force of high capillary action.
gravity since it is PumPed.
o lt reduces weed probiem since weeds growing between plants cjo not

::::1": "y:l:: i::::,ll:r_:'^"^ , ^+^- .r.;A. ^,,+ ^f +h6 nino< c nr, ,r

4.3 Factors that influence the frequency and time of irrigation

Type of soil: Sandy soil require rnore frequent and time of irrigation to avoid crops from wiiting due to lack
of water since it has high infiitration rate and low water holding capacity. Clay soil requires less frequent
anC time of irrigation to avoid excessive run offwhich causes soil erosion since it has low
infiltration rate
and high-water holding caPacitY.
Type of crop: Crops that require more water like rice and vegetables require more frequent and more time
of irrigation.
Weather condition: More frequent and more time of irrigation is required in hot and dry weather because
of high rate of evapotranspiration. Less frequent and less time of irrigation is required in cool and wet
weather since the soil is able to keep moisture due to lorry rate of evapotranspiration'
Moisture content of the soil: Less frequent and short time of irrigation is required if the soil has high
moisture content i.e., if an area has recently i'eceived rainfall in order to avoid water logging and excessive
run off which causes soil erosion.
Stage of plant growth: More frequent and longer time of irrigation is required in certain stages
of plant
growth e.g.; water is needed more in maize during grain filling while vegetables during transplanting.

4.4 Irrigation vegetables

4.4.1 How to irrigate vegetables using a hose pipe'
i) Connect one end of the hosepipe to a water tap'
ii) open the water tap to let rryater flow out through the hose pipe.
iii) Hold the other end of the hose pipe'
iv) Direct the hose pipe to the crop to be irrigated'
v) Create pressure by partially blockingthe openingof the hose pipeforwaterto reach cropsthat are
some ciistance away
vi) Ensure that all crops get adequate water'
4.4.2 How to irrigate vegetables using a watering can
o Fetch water into the watering cane from the source'
o Carry water to the vegetable garden'
r Apply water to the crops by slanting the can to create pressure for water to come out through the
nose.
4.4.3 How to irrigate vegetables using a hose pipe and sprinklers.
o Connect one end of a hose pipe to a water tap'
o Connect a sprinkler to the other end of the pipe'
Page 19 cf 66 I Cornplied by: Mrs. lr4.C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388
 , 1",::: ..:.e j,-,::. a::n a-: j:_:-t :_,. ......_ i-::,i::-. .-. :.i- ia
5 :::-,.
. :an],,^a,rr.-:-,,::=:::--'..:'.:':,-;:,:,::;.:4,
-- r ,. , ::- :-'.-e:t:.=!:,:-;.-,,:.;.
* C:ieci.;ihet'ait€::::s ia.e ':'11 \tl a;3:!:e :e i.r";:-{r.
e Shilt ihe snrir,kiei io alciiel i::ati'-':' I',f, ii Il rr 3'-i' -''-r::"cii::!'
4.4.4 i{oiir'to ii"riEate i'e..:+:3bles uiir'.5 til"is cr h':?iiss
e l.r:r.': hclt-, at il: :L'-:J1- ,i '.-':1, -:-i ;,.:,a '-'.'-: . .: i - - = Lt:"
e- nr^
:,!i! eaci ri'^ ^- -,ile
--i--r c: rlai . :.n .i--
+t-^ ^l-r-'-^ r
::-i r.:-1.
e F:ilil"re t;i-ls irir::h \iiiaier.
4.4.! iioiry to irrigate vegetahlas u:ing furr*.T irrige.ti*r:.
c Cc;-istr-uci f:.iric*,,s i;: the iii;: i-:"3ie i;r s;ch a rr3'i'aL:'r.'il€l- iilit's under lie f':ice cf gi-airi:','.
e Craaie Ct-raLi^,elS ii:,n::lle \\'3:ei'Scr.:C* iC::,4 f;ilf ,i'5.
t-- -.-) -
t- g, r=--^r= i^ :-t L *a 3.--g 3:
-r*L--:r: -:-l
=",: :: l-€ *-'-:I i:'
e i,r*;t rl,: ihe luii-c.'.: 5!.'i3eri-i the sl';i:e g'::.
,r.aiei iiic
4"5 Fact,.rrs to cotisicer'{rheii s*!et"tiftg 3ft irr;g'ei:i*i1 s} sieii''
€ Tspg,grapi:y: Ct,r::e s:r a:t rr:'igaii::i't ii ih* i=:-ri is :eialli'el'r'li:i sa :l':al li:e ir.'aier cen fi3v"1 si:v"i'n'
-n l::? 5i-ace i,,i;h l,tr't l': :'i e;fsi3l. C:;:s: '-:ra,,'":.;al;::t ,f r-': i::; :as : -a:i-i::t s :p: s:
rir,r,r j:::::':f e for:: :f ;::'.iti' ','-.:,:3s s;r:-.i:,=:"i:i-ig::i:': CZi: r2 -:33 :r ai: i.':':
il-,at wa:e:'^;-
-t-t^- jr.=i. _,,.,:;;\
r_Liir...:-.:::i:--3,,:--::l=-. j.ji..,.;n-j.-,:t-:,-.:;::..,1,,a:il ,s;._-;:j.i::cjil.:-.l"li:':,
-.i ::-ipC a,::l _4. :_: i'

shci.:ii be pra;iicec rn ii:i i:nC s,: ihat i'i-re i:-'h;le iitid is Cc'rJt;-'3,1 !t'"iin v,ia:€i-.::-';: ='.ely.
e, SGurae o,f water: Sur-,Face irrigatiln i-eq::ii'es iai-ge r,'a:ei scLi:-cei strch as a iiijti-, :-;irr ci': lail: siirce
- : 1'' :: :-'-iL=r r"'r ::i^ l--'
':::
'5':l "r'c'ri' -;:j: i-:g:- -'l i--: '::s "rc':i' :'E '-:i
a-:- .-.:---: '-r-
': :-:;t'l.:*^^
:! ,-^^
ia:ge allc'i:r
i-eS :^"^^ - .l ,,-+...

e:1 l,*it Cf .,i3-.€r l:ile a s:::a:i -i,i1 L: ::::,='-e.

*, T1';r cf crop: C:.::'se rl ::! ,:::.gali;'r :il-,: a:L; -.1 :;;r:,, r ci:', -'. ':,-::a:': \".'-al- ::-.5':'a c;:rl':' j: s
c : {irc .1 ,.::f,6:gl i;fi;;--i3-. i'::.=a:=:.::::t::t ^' '-'-.;al :;Sai-qeS t.g.,:'..:,,-.i,-. :::-,=:::S:.e::3
Cr'3ile 13 il':':ga:ic n is l:ri i- l:":i:.
c Vail,e Oitne clCp: T:: f:::-,ei'shO-iJ ll: l:53 ;:,: :I S:ri-'!::i-,1:'ige:;::-, ,:',rt :::: i:S :'^.:3h p:::.1
n:.;;r . --srl i:.2+ +'i-'- .--ri U'
ai'--i^:r;-1 : i: C:.':-€:: :':' 13 .i-; 3!n S',':-.:::S'jie::,fa:,3" -=.
J ui.
- .-L '- != L-:L ::, 3:(l-'

e CzIita[: 53.r::-e "s',t::: .:.'::' :::.1:l 13f i^:ll zi::s :- l-:c--;:3 :, : :l- s:-::i-:l ,i-'ua-.lc: t:c:J5=
-':,=12 i1-'1a'.-:' c, c-a-a : :: :1 -:ti;i :"

e
' Tr';ecf
,:F. l;.::l--a::,:::-:--.:: l=:- :s:a:,': :: .. - i':'2?:'l: ar'-"':';-
=.= :::,'..'-" i:"':'::'::':': -a;:,:,:i
A- ,^ *;q i urcL:i .l J-5,-. r ):c*':i
c.:-:^a Sl : l=i ,,,ra:ai' :aL ::1 '-I': Sl--1:€.
-.1-.a Lci
i:r':U,;13 =,....^i .-l: eL. i,,.-,
-c-:.j -u;\L:J
^:6---,-i.
-.::r:':r," <:.-i-.ll'er:a-,:r: -:-:i ,:, z:,, :,':3 :f s:i: :.:.:e
-: ,
.":trr-:i:','s::s':e i:':ts:::1 cei:-3i b= i::r
:. l. -.1.r:n
! *:
a2u-.a: ia

e Tech*!ta{ }li,: ai,: sr-:ir:::i.iei !i;-i;aiil: ie:.- :-.s n gn .t.=i :f s!.ills :.3 3p3:;:e :::l
ti:ia'dff;a'\r",:
:..i:iIr:ai: c:::,;:rei t::;fa:e ili'c-.:;:1;e:-,:e l:-';::s ilr':rn i:i:ie sil;ii s::-l: :':'a c-:.:5='-",=tre
4.-+rA1.
:i'L:ir:].

d.5 Es:a biishi:,g an ir::ga"ic r.'*:,,t

4.5, 1 l"{ ci'., to esta h i;-. h f ur.*oiv ir:iEa';icn.
''-1,3 :- -:: r s :- ;13 :-': ll'-:l--'' .*' ::3
; 'l':::i.::iat
riel,J. Fr' jj.:

.. j C::s::-:r. = :=:=:,' c:,::-.:,€, :l*:- '-;,i Sl*Ili '.1

?,^:j -L^
-. ::,=l*. :i
i"\
'
a-
u---.ilIuJI +r- . ^-
,ll: :- -.-= <; ri :. : c. v; ':-'
..', "= -t 'u .i
j ..__ .': :
;. 1'-^^. :L:
:t r --.'. :-L -,.=.r:-E: --
-;.^ .i.- i'; - -'..i iigure 11: iu:icw i:-rigaticr
/ i ? llnr:r 1., LC?=r l;1- ;r^- ''. --""-',
--r.;t-LJ:- "'" iq:-i-'i
'
. -:;- : r ^,-.i --!^ j
':-;; -

rag::''.: *:l f.!, i i:*:f.::*i ri': l,':":* r,' i ii;'i=,;'; i ::!:::"i ]i:
 ii) Construct the channels/ Canals from the source to the field
4.5.3 How to establish basin irrigation Main water
".\ 'i ,.:i:.=--
i) Construct the basins in the field by ievelling the ground and ,-= t: channel
: t, 'l ,l
construct a dyke or levee around each levelled ground. ;
ii) Construct a main channel from the source to the field. Sluice gates
iii) Construct the feeder channels connecting each basin.
iv) Construct a sluice gate at the entry point of the basin.
'''
v) Direct the water into each basin. it

Levee
4.5.4 How to establish drip irrigation
a) Establishing drip irrigation using a perforated plastic pipe
Fruit trees
Materials required: A tank, main drip pipe and perforated pipes
Procedure:
i) Dotormino tho rnr:ter qnrrraa a o a t:nlu i-H -\
Feeder channel

.*..
ii) Connect the tank's outlet to the main drip pipe.
Basin

iii) Connect lateral pipes with perforations to the main drip pipe. Figure L2: Basin irrigation
(NlB the perforations are put according to the spacing of crops.)
iv) Place the pipes on the ground along the rows of the crops such that each perioration is at the base of
each plant. (see figure 14)
Tank outlet

Water
tan k Lateral pipes

rations

Bottle
Main pipe
Perforations

Figure 14: Drip irrigation using perforated plastic pipes 't,4

b)
Establishing drip irrigation using a perforated tin using a
Materials required: A hammer, naii, botrieltins :$:::il:Jrigation
Procedure:
1. Make holes at the bottom of the bottles/tins using the hammer and a nail.
2. Place each tin/bottle on the planting station.
3. Fill each tin/bottle with water. (see figure 13)
4.5.5 How to establish sprinkler irrigation
Materials required: Tank, main pipe, lateral pipes, veftical
pipes and nozzles.
Procedure:
1. Determine the water source e.g", tank
2. Connect the tank's outlet to the rnain irrigation pipe
which delivers water from the tank to the field.
Figure 15 Sprinklerirrigation

3. Connect lateral Dipes to the main pipe.

4. Connect vertical pipes on the laterai pipes on various pcsitions so that circular a reas irrigated slrouicl
overlap to ensure that all crops are watered,
5. Fix nozzles at the end of the vertical pipes.
Page 21of 66 | Complied by: Mrs. t\4.C. Kayembe | 0995 386 388
4.5 tt{aintaining an irrigation unit
;i.5.1 Maintenance af sui'iace irrigaticn

Tabie 1-1 siic$'3 '.tai's cf iraintain cf su:'face iri'i -+;^^

^,:;!---^+ s

iArays of meintaining furrol'.' Ut'ays of rnaintaining besi* Ways

cf meintair.li:rg tioocl
irrigaticn lr i n
irrigaiion
F.ernoiie siit frci:r'l th= canals. Re;::ci'e siit i:'r'rhe c:;:ais'
Remo.': siit'r': ;:-t t:l: ca :rais.
3e;nci't it'e:is in tht la:r=ls R:i-'n,:'re ,r,ieeds in r-he canals
Remcve v!'ee'ls in tne canais
F.epai;' the sluice ga:es. F'epair i-\e siuice gat.s-
F.epair the fui-ror,''s ir ail eroken levees

4.6.2 hriainter,ance of drip irrigation

* Repairir-epia,:e ail br-ci:en pipes ic er,;id wastage r:f v,,ater ari ici'*'ei'ing of v'ater press'lre in the

o i;':rpurlties.
Unblcck the pertorations on ihe bcrtiesiiii-rs or pices if biocked r'"'i:h
e P.er,lace claniaged connectoi-s.
4.6.3 trtiaintenance cf sprinkier irrigation
. Unclocl< all sprinl<ler n.rzzles.
. Replace/ iepair ail bi"clle: pines'
" Repia:e i'"'crn-$ut norzles'
Review quest[ons
1. A farmer wants tc gro\4/ gr:uninuts under lrrigaticn on a siopli;'rg tanci with clay loam soil' The ai-ea
is cicse to a big r-iver i,,;hich v,iiil be ihe s,ci:i-ce
,:f ii-i-igaticn \t'ai.r. Use the infci-rnation to ansri'er the
q uesiicns that foiiovu'.

a}|.,lai:,.lethet1.peofii.l-igaiicl.:Si,Ste:xihatcanhereccm:.'.,ie::'j:dicihefernier'
h) Desci-ihe hc,"r,r ic eslablish the lr;-igaticn sistem nan:ed in '1a' abcve'
'''l a' abo'"'e'
c) any tni-ee u/ays of mainiaining ihe ir-rigation SYSIein r,arr,ed in
lilai.ne

2. Gi,,,e ivuo reaSons ithy sprinkier ii'rigation can be used cn hilll' ai'eas'
END OF TOPIC

TCIFIC 5: AGRICULTURAL RESEAPiCFT

iiifcrm one, yGu i:arr:r.,1;.lat a5riculiuIai :'ese al'ch is oci':e ir crier rl iird betier ways of gi'citing crsL's aiid

raising lii:estacil to !ncra:se procuctli':ti'. iEs:a;'ch =ust be :esigned carefuily

ir crctr t3 ccrns up i';'th
acaurat= i-esuils. in ihis tcplc, i'su ,,;:il st'ud.v hcir; to ce:igi'r an'j
concuct an e::pei-i;'nertt end r,''rite a i'ep3i-t'

5.1 Experimental Seslgns

v,'iil be iais cut anci appeai- in crop lielis
An e>lperimentai ciesign is a pian ',r-,hich shc$,s nov/ the er:perinrent
ci- in anirilai housi;'ig structures iike stalis, fisii p'o;'rcs e-c'

5.1.2 Ti,pes of experimental designs

5.l-.2.1 Randoi'riized blocl: design
Vr'hat are the characteristics of i'andon'lised hi*ck design?
. The i'e ai"e iit'c or mGre biocks.
c Iach 'ri'€ati-i're i-:t 3ppeeIS ci'rae in a blciii'
e Treati^nerits ai-= randcnlised. (The c:ier" in v.,hlch treatn-rents ap3€ar
in the:lccks is changecii
e The nurr,bei" of biccils iS nCt eci,,altc the n*::,bt; ci li-eatrents'
Page 23 cf 55 | Con':piied by: \,'-s.
r,J, I r"i'e-lbe i I9S5 JS5 383
Tabie 12 shorvs an example of a randomised block ciesign in a maize variety research to find out the best
va riety
BLOCK 1 BLOCK 2 BLOCK 3
PLOT 1 Pannar 67 Kanyani DK 8033
PLOT 2 Kanyani Local maize Pannar 67
PLOT 3 DK 8033 Pannar 67 Local maize
PLOT 4 Local maize DK 8033 Kanyani

5.L.2.2 Latin square design

What are the characteristics of Latin square design?
o There are two or more blocks.
. Each treatment appears once in a block.
. Each treatment appears once in the plots.
o Treatments are randomised.
r The number of blocks is equal to the number of treatments
Table 13: shows an example of a Latin square design in a rate of fertiliser application research. (A 4X4
Latin square des
BLOCK 1 BLOCK 2 BLOCK 3 BLOCK 4
PLOT 1 50Kg oKg 100Kg 150K9
PLOT 2 oKg 100Kg 150Kg 50Kg
PLOT 3 100Kg 150Kg 50Kg oKg
PLOT 4 150Kg 50Kg oKg 100Kg
NIB a Latin square design is used when the experiment is done on different sites where the site could be a
source of variation. lt is used to randomise position effects in orcier to obtain accurate results.

5.2 Laying out an expe!'i!'nent

What are the factors to consider rvhen laying out experiment?
The factors are: i) Treatments; ii) Replication iii) Randomisation
Treatments: Treatments are variables (things that can be changed) in an experiment so that comparison
are made at the end. An experiment must have two or more treatments and one of the treatments must
be a control. A control treatment is a standard treatment against which the rest of the treatments can be
compared or judged. lt is a bench mark to assist in measuring the success of the experiment. A control
treatment must be familiar to the researcher or most commonly used in the area for easy comparison.
Table 14: shows exam les of a ricultural experiments, aims, treatments and the control treatment
Research Aim Treatrnents control
Maize variety To find out the best maize varietY Different maize varieties for Local maize
resea rch example local maize, kanyani,
Njobvu
Rate of To find out the best rate of Different rates of fertiliser okg
fertiliser fer-ti liser a pplication. application e.9., Okg, 50kg, 100kg,
application 150Kg
resea rch
Fertiliser To find out the best tyPe of Different types of fertilisers applied |l,1anu re

research fe rt ilis er. I e.g., CAN, Urea, manurg _

Time of To find out the best time of Different dates of planting e.g., 1 The most
pianting planting maize. day after the first rains, common date of
research 7 days after the first rains, planting in an
14 days artei'the first rains area.

Page 23 of 66 ! Complied by: ti4rs. lr4.C. Kayenroe | 0 995 385 388

 E::i't':;ea:eC(r-epiicatei)
fteplicaticn:Tnisrneans:Ci:rgil:erl;etirrenii^,:ai:yti::esCrincii:ei-ei'':piaces
'bloc!<'. lf the er:pei-i:'::ent is i'epeatec ti'.'c tiri':es tnefi ''ie e>;perinie nt
experirient on ani;ihe r site l: caiiec a
hasfour biccit's'
has tv,,c biccks. if it is repeaiec f:u: iil-:.s t;1en tne exFer'rr'ent

What is the importa*ce of replication in an experinrent?

c;tained'
- To avoici enr.ir-cnmen:al inierfei-e;:ces,3n the ti-eatinenis so ihat reliabie results are
lrr soilier"tiiity. ciil",-,aiic conditicns, pesis ancidiseases if
I.,,ilB the experimentaifieic migi:t l-r:i,e iifferences
cailed en'-'iro:imental interferen:es c'r exte' nal
the fieids are in different !ocaiions i.e., cisti-icts. Tilese are
'be i'ep:ated'
factoi"s. Therefore, all expei'in,ents :nust
Random,.isation
Thls is ti-ie process cf aiiocatiiig ti"satfieiits tc :icts by chance'
V,rhat is the ii'r:portance of rai"ldomisation?
c, it prever,ts bias (favcur-riisni i:i aliccating treatr:lerits to picts ln o:-der tc obtain accii'3ie re sults'
:^Ll-,^-,,[+. a16 ^hr:in:ri
A iL i-lrl:!ilrr) 5 r!!rtliirra:,!L,,'

h4ethods of randomisatio n
ai Tosslng a coin
a coin has ivu'o siies cnly'heads' and
This rnethod is useC r,;hen they are oirly tvu,o treatments because
'tai!'e.g.,i'.,eededandun-'*'e:i:Jplits;Lccalrnaire:ndKani'arli.
Un,r r Llse a cci:"1 ',,han
: il.rn1+ ;a^ frc:+"43 nts to piots
F,iiocate the first treatn-ient to cci']1e out
i. Assigrr the tv"'o treati'nenis to sides':f the coin e'g'' 3.
lccel maize 'heads' anC !(ani'3xi 'tails' cr r;ce ;rer>a' aiter tcssing the ccin to irict 1.
a
4.
a^-. rL^ -^i^
i iJ)J Lll; lLrrrl.
4. Allocate the other ti'eairnent to plot 2'

b) Tirrowing a dlce
r"r Thi< math
"li B
* <? #
<iro
- ''"h:
""-<
r e).13i:ilit
& d tirg, 5l'lg,
: i:e ari
tO LI EJ L tJ
ii3u:e i6: }i:e l'' ,*l-.s: -.f
;r:t:-. ii,::,::.
' A.ssign eaan ireatiTrent a l;;:iber i-5 i'e;::se3"ir:g
"
qT css the dice and iie numbar inat ihat csmes ili'st is aiio:aieii
css ihe iiice fcr a seconC ti:::e ani the ni'r:''"b::' that
cc:-i:s up -]3C.:.: i: : l::.:: j :: Pi:t 2 ":':
the pi.ocess g3:s olr .:rtil a;t :n3:i.eai:j:ei^...S::? ail::ateJ to
pi.:..s.

c) Using Pieces of PaPer

The :r'ethccj can De useC up to any nurr'bei'cf ii'eairrients'
i..-.=5;I-,= iIf,Lj it3.rt tc -:sig: ;:l =):;:Ci.i:a=.t
,.c i:i..i ;ut ..h: 5.s.. :,:: :f {el.:,'.,=t. ;s;:s i-:: fol,:i'i]ls i:.,=

treat;Tenis: C+.hi, U:,EA, ]AP, 23:21:'3+ 45 anci i'4ai-rui-e'

tt^,i,,^.,:e.risrcc-;caperit.henaiiocatir,gi;lieti-:atr:-;::,t:ioi:i;':s.
.-J!'! lJ --\= L:=L:) L'r
''-:':'l;=t -r :;:: '-I"r:':';;:'' it ' ':' '-'= t :: : :i=:; l';
o A:=:gl 3o-l., '.' =;i::::"1 3 :l'- T':':1' ::1ci ii'=
-zapr 3 u ir;4
2;.,i JrJ
tl': j;-'iPr<.
L"':--t-"'-'
PtP'-r
e 1,1:x :ll Pi=ces af --e;:i".
o S:iec'. a Pi:ce :i ::ltr :- :-a:ri::i. j
e .1.,1:::'.e'.i:t l:.i p:ll=i p3il3:':c pl;t i'-r':t: ::3:k':i-': s:::L: ": :i:i 2 ': s: :r'
c leP:at tne Pi-'3cess for each block'
ii
Using ra*dom nurirber tah[e
fi-:n i-3 a:r:1131 -1:'i3:nir' ir:l''r':'s is:e l:L;e i5;
-1 i3:t: i-t tulrisSI .a:;e :f :.si::s cf f;g;re: :an5!rg
The :-,eth:.d':an be r:sed tr aliicaie iip to 3 ii'e:'''r-:eris

?a;= -::f65 C'::l-.:liedbil"i's I r":'?-':? l?15 ::i ll8

"i
 1, 4 7 7 8 7 o 3 5 6 I 9 9 B lmagine you v"'ant to design an
4 7 3 5 2 o
o ) 2 3 8 1 2 experiment to finC out the best
4 9 1,

( I 7 4 1 method of weeding in groundnut field

5 9 2 5 5 I 3, 7 1 9
o
after flowering using the following
1 2 5 o 3 9 o 9 6 3 5 4 5 8 6
n
four treatments: iight hoeing, use of
1 4 6 + 9 A
L 6 8 6 5 3
B L
chemicals, uprooting and no weeding.
1 1 2 2 5
9 1 6 3 4 3 B 4 6 1

2 3 8 9 9
-7
2 3 9 8 3 6 2 3 7
4
3 6 3 5 1 C
-
n 5 2 + 7 5 4 6

6 2 t 6 8 6 l 5 9 1. 7 3 1 9

Table 15 random number table.

How to use a random nu m table when allocatin sthet reatments to Plots.

o Select a column on the random number table by pointing at it v, ithout locklng to av3 Io DIas' suppose lrre
selected column is the one which is highlighted as follows'-3,8,7,6,L,4,9,2,5
r Assign each treatment a number like: 1. Light hoeing 2. Use of chemicals, 3. Uprooting and 4' No weeding'
o Disregard numbers that you do not need; since this experiment has four treatments you disregard the
following figures on the highlighted colurnn 8,7,6,9 and 5'
. Arrange the treatments in the plots as follows: 3,1,4,2 as shown in table 16 below'
o Arrange the treatments in block 2 using diagonals'
o The process of using diagonals is repeated to all blocks'
Table 16: Results of the allocated treatments u5r a random number table
PLOT BLOCK 1 BLOCK 2 I erocr s
1 U rooting Light hoeing t{o weeding
2 Light hoein No weeding Use of chemicals

.l lrlo weeding Use of chemicals U rooti

4 Use of chemicals Uprooting Light hoeing

5.3 Steps to be followed when laying out the experiment

field for the experiment'
1. Decide on the treatments. (What to be studied). 5. Select a suitable
2. Determine the number of blocks (replicates). 6. Divide the field into appropriate number
3. Choose the method of randomisation- of blocks and plots'
plots'
4. plan the lay out (choose the experimental design and 7' Label the blocks and
draw it).
5.4 Conducting an agricultural research
Applying treatments (carrying out
The following practices are done when carrying out the experiment:
data'
operation); collecting data; recording data; analysing data; evaluating
5.4.1 Applying treatrnents (Carrying out the operations)
care for the c'ops from the day they are planted
This involves doing husbandry practices (activities done to
pesticice application' harvesting
to when they are harvested) like planting, weeding, fertiliser application,
period of experiment'
and activities done to care for livestock throughout the
What are the two factors to consider when carrying out the operations?
- These are: i) Managing the treatments equally ii) randomisation'
of timing and
a) Managing the treatments equally (i.e., keeping factors/variables constant) in terms the variable to
quality of husbandry practice. The only husbandry practice that will be changed is
practices ra'rhile the
be compared. The variables that are to be made constant are the husbandry
variables to be changed/varied are the tested variables (treatments)'

Page 25 of 66 | Complied by: Mrs. M'C' Kayembe | 0 995 386 388

 I.,r
LAPEi
-,-i*a-+
I:l,Cill
t.l:!24.r,!rtl
^^+6^F+ I-,rIt-^+
!'al
llr

can h€ ctrangei)
t, r^:-^ .,^-:^-.

.^. ^ ^,-^L
:=>E-.Lit

a
r^+:r:-^- . !^-i--.. +L^ nia+ r:-r
f tL.i,;l:l , \ Lr:> ui lE: L:tl::1 r'ci rC-i,, ^5 :..= --^^L'-;
L. -'*
ii ^; r --:i=.- -!:h^
:^ L 1:.r<r --^-:^*
:l,raLi::si, ;i-l ll!E, -:|q^
-...r€ -F;
o.:J

=r-ii-r'i,rr freque:ct, c,i vdeec;rg, ;;,aie;';::e:hi:.i:in"-. cf renili,qer sppii:aticn,

-^^^^-^L -_,:::. !.- ltt- - ':atic:, l':se:s= :c.:ii'ol, Ti-.e :i :ra:i'es:i
::3-.€ C1 i3::i: Sea f.3:eS 3;:e'--i::i3" \ia'i:^.1 cf :"1: :::3. Ti-E rf 3la:-;t::r3. sp3:i:rg. D:::l of p:ai'.ir:9. pi:t
-^- ^---s-t
: c>Edi I s:;e t:::i e ai,'; :i:: J:: :;,' :f r',':e:i r3. t','pe .i:::: 3,1n e:hcC :f rertii,-<er :

- , -.J-rJ,lr i=tr-rL:ii= t icati::r. Disease cant:ol, Tii'ne cf harvesti

ieei type Ag: ;f ::= a:.:-::a! t:ae j -Ji:-la .1.n:ul.-- ieei, ?ai=si:e anC
=:iii1:', =i
--.---,--t^
t--^ Li.c ^-i._-r +,,-^
Ainount cf feel Ani0unt cr feei T.,-^
It'-re ^;:^^;gErr
Jr r<= l': --:+rl t=,t
^I-L -,1:^ c.t.. r-pe-{
r. !'-u -a
!! - L 3.,,1'.G|, -rl= -J
ui -;^
.i';

i-es€aicn aniilial, Faraslie eni ir-ceasf; colrir3i.

n--+L
UCr-ilUi ^, Derth of plant;ng Vai'ietl, cf ii-:e crcp, iirne cf pie.rti;rg, :Jacing, si:e, iime ai-lC
=ict
nlrr:i:= fi'equencv cf vu,eeding. Titre cf harinesiing.
, C:tli^ ^ -^;
-^. L, i

Daie +f pia-rti::g ]a:es af cla;liing ,'arie:y;f ::: ::ca, .;ac;:3. ;i;i s::e. :i;,re ar,j fi=c;e:11 :f i.'ee:il-1,
r^*-L -{ i-
:-esea i-ch ,Ei",. -i -r^--i*-
Ui Jr,3.'.r .,,.:; -- U:
:i, -'^- ,,o,1-.,pi-i*3
lCa!;! 3.
Tirpe cf pesiici,je \ra:"iet'r :i:he c:lp, T.::e of pesiicice appllcailon, tine of pianrir:g,
I *.^,t^^-:^-
,-,Jiri!oLlU, i --^ ^:-*
spo-i,iD,
* i^- -:-^ -'*
,. : ^ ani fi.eC:..:enCv Of ,,5, i!:.:re
i,veeiin= ,:,,'L *i i:3.an.es:inq
v'i i: !1-'.i,.<.
iJ:-::'-:/ =
-^- ^ - --L Y.,-^,'!:*^
i ) le,] G.l- --!^
l.Ir.;= --: . cL= J:^a;-a:l:-^. ^^^:;^^';--
,=l -1.,4=l cJJ:i!cLIJ l.
t *-.,
H!l,i,JJ -+
-L ^+
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IIp,:!: ^:-L^,:j=L ^,.--!;, ^-;^-
\3.r=-l -i-:^ -.--
f,i a.:!.*,:r/
|i* - -l
"t..r=!|
-:---!-- --^-t-4
J.a..t'j.8,>JC;tt,1,{,-l -l--

r i-i'iSai.: 3n !\'ar.ei' ; i-.:--+;^-,".-!.^-

r i15iL,-.i !ra-=i si:e,:in : a:id':-=:u-'l-,:i, if tllEectng, ilepri si oianiing, neihci ard
I,u>=J
,._^f, i-^^. ^*^-- ^:;---:-^- ^^ i.
I
r, CU!:r:i-!' -.:i ll : rac-l!

V'ihat is the in,portarce of aaing the husbandry F;'actices equaliy/mariaging tt".e ti'eatn":ents equaily in an
ar'n=riman h?

To exie!-nai ia*crs fr-cir aifectir:g the ireati'ie:'iis nenae ti-uef lei:aiie ;'esui:s are c'btair:aed. icr
ar,iii
e,.ianxple, if one r.arieti' ,s v,,eecec :ai':ier, tl',:t aii::r, :r13 r a f, :eiter ir$i Sea3use it is s;pei-i;r, 3Jt neaaus3
'
:r:re ,r,:s :3 c3:T:::;tic:i f::= v.,:e.is.
bi fta:riernlsaticn: lt is necessa:,v tc :-an:c:r,isr:lie;ii€r" in r,,'hich ihe op:raticns a:e i::'e in each
h'af
ts '_'

'-{'hy [s it !:irpcrtant to randornise the crder !n i,.,Fich opera'.i]ns aie dsne in the expeiirr*ent?
::- ^ i* :^ ,- ..- -.: -- * +-:-! - ^-, ,14- --^
- -^ ^..^:^!
.J cYJ:.j Jr3:,.1.c!*e: ut )i itr -: :a- . ,.::J . .:.3--- c.:,=:L.-)::E *'-.31::EJ,^-j
^t---i-
=:
- Q;ai.t, :f l,'::K.,";.i !:e:he sa:r:::l ::l :.:t; s'i:= :.bsi:i::::n s',:.'.s -r:a:;,:lp:t i:lp:c.e '".':th::-.r:
*^..1--:-+-- ,'-,t.=, :--- L^!+^-Li-- ;..-,-^L;$.. ,i^.1
^--;^.
a)..i=i'!1 ir ^..+
-J-
-^----i^,^.
v'*'=:a!|- :)...:1.. L'-= t.i-::) J=i:_-' :':!'E=i:.:, ^^-i-.- :J. :: f,-r.ll=!l.li=J, L: ,:)
=.,J
r:.-. I '..'.-- i-..^r ^r-,-r i,l.
--t ^.,,,r.i, -;li
35,/, --^^--
L. :'.'.: L;a,c-.v'i> J.-,:= -Lrn
.;!;'{:5 J.1tr5
5tr'l -i.r-,i -<r=::=: 5:.lci

tr??fa[lactinrri:t=
l:l: i: i:i3r'-;''- r a:,::e:i:tr f'::,'t i:.- '?tz-aia\.'.'r::r-r \'i';., h'- ;se j':l :f,:-:::E li:::ect ii:-::isa::':-:1s.
t t ^---;^ ..--,J,L-^ ^^ri- ^.i^- .!--^

,:g,::tll.,.]3:]::L:,il-tg:l^,::3::::.::i:s:{::]:.:Sl.liei;al...:Ui.'::Js.l
;^*-- - ;.--.^ '^;-.+^-:^.. -l-*r:^..^:- :--.:^^ - t-.;.'.:l-: --.^------
'i,=:Lc.:'; r,irai:r l-"*<;,:3,i=, ::!c -r-,' y:r-=..idq=,:-:\ L::-= ,r-C:=.
;;j tr^--,,-i--.
:\'itrG5,tl:t3; at^-------'--'^- ^. -L ^- -t-,-.;^--;. :^-i---- :- .^l .:-- i u,:, :-i a:C*: .:c:-.:.
.; -,:.c_-:i.:.,_::J_i?5 -,=. , !Y.:r.,-r i::i c =: i> -1-..r
r,
=c:-.rt'u
u>:,,-
r'i-l-1 l-.- '-^--,'.^f a:-- L.;^-.-^l^
:: 5 ---;'=.
.t: r ^^^ i
-Ct -: =JJ- E- J:. i O rrE,_a
Fac:cis -.: c:is.:=r"',', l,:;^, aa.li:::'ri i:-.3
i) A Sample: A sample is a representative of the i,;hole population of plants and livestock to be observed
in an experiment. The sample should be large enough to give a true representation of the whole
popuiation. if the sampie is not a true representation of the population then the resuits are not
accu rate.
lmportance of con siderine a samole:T o save time since it is difficult to measure each plant or animal
ii) Randomisation: This is necessary when choosing sample plants and livestock for observation in order
to get accurate results.
iii) The net plot: Plants in the net plct (see figure Outer
crops
17i are less affected by external factors hence
they are likely to give accurate results. They -r -r )- ^r )- ln ner

are true representatives of the treatments in crops

the plots. They should be harvested f- illl Net plot

separately from the outer crops. The plants in

f ha nrrtar nart nf tho pvncrimpntal nlnt are
1-Yl-Y)'l'-r- Gross

greatly affected by external factors such as FigurelT:showsinnerondoutercropsofanexperimentatplot.

wind which causes lodging, pests, diseases,
fertiie ailuvial deposits, encroaching weeds. These affect ci-op yields. The influence of these external
factors on the outer/boarder crops are called boarder effects.
5.3.3 Recording data
Data can be recorded immediately as forgetting some data might affect the results of the experiment.
Ways of recording data
Data can be recoi"ded in the form of: iltables ii) bar graphs iii) pie charts and iv) line graphs. Table l-8, the
bar graph to the right and the pie chart on page 28 show yield
of different maize varieties. Table 19 and the line graph on
page 28 show plant height of different maize varieties (A, B, C
and Local r"naize)taken at rrueekly interval.

Table 18: Yield of different rnaize Varieties

Variety Yield (Ke)
A 4500
B 3500 E_
C 3000
Local maize 1000

How to orodu the pie chart

L. Acjd maize yield produced by the four varieties (4500Kg, A pie chart of yield against
ifferent maize varieties)
3500Kg, 3000Kg, anC 1000Kg) v"'hich is 12000Kg.
ci

2. Find the degrees covered by each variety on the pie chart

by dividing its yield by the total prcCucticn and multip!y
the answer b\,360'as follovu's:

-3"""""- 1350 Varietv' B -i)rv\Jou : 1050

Varietv 4=
' 1?Ot)0
= 1 2000

3C00x360 lOuux3h0 ^^n

Varietya=ffi:9tlo Local maize =-: 1 2000
5U'

3. Produce a pie chart using the calculated degrees

?age27 of 56 | Cornplied by: Mrs. tr4.C. Kayembe | 0995 386 388

 Tabie i3: 9i,ir.i'5 Fi":l i^,::g::i cl'i!:-leie r,: rr::.: '':'l'l'::'e s

Flant height {cn:i

:^^-l
: i tiltg Variety \ Gi iELY \iari*t1t IJLCI
r{l'3 {cu can tse the::?la:- i:i::a i9 t: li'oiuce a l:ne
'\hIeeliS I rI rolag
--:aa
(rJPrl : a i aa.,.1
c-]: rv't\':
i-3i^,,,,
+-'vv
0 0 C 3 0
n
_t 3
1l , rU :"0
f
-

i_v r. i

': r. in ln
6. 4,1 95 lnQ
, a.-\ a ,:a
i15 I-i
I . aa
4ti. ',/1
E 1LU !-U
1f I ,i iE
I iJ :JJ IUJ

1iq 155 ::.1 rl:J

.F/
c-- .. -+
.rb
,E.:- i

.t I :

.f

' -. i r.:.i , .1

5"3.4 Analysing da:a

n-r^ :- ^--1,,^^- l-,,'
uY.
L-,d(c i5 cli:1):C-
1
I. f:.irll:rinc
!q.'-Jia!rirS nq:C€ntaee3.
r'_ 55f gy;3ii-:3ie:
45:i,r'qx^::0 _ il (_,, .".=,-.:-...: 3501.i-Jx:i{' :2}.11:;'i
\1_-!-_r_ ^ _ - .{;n;
\ralia:\' P.: - -: I
.J rrj -
:lii-,.,,,':;
-'Ji'!':i.;xiJlr
:i()::,r.;-uj r-,,., ,--:l-= : --:--
:n---l I '--,4::= 3 ?.-:
\..;:i;-,,
1o l=L)'L- - = -----
i- -- !v, ,,ii -C:a - J,-:J ri
;.t:cl..c ,.3lnli''
-- ^ i-*t^-. ^- -.-h i^i.,-.---- f'-i5.j:=:J
i'.=:li'.:\ci;6t
*-'-\ -T---:::j:-:-il':
- --i: rii'iie by li'll-rbei- cf :ie :trilElrts
'-f,,I'-1.3.i:13
/ t:T\!\ r tfn'l -:- 1^,.-'n :.:1,1, t'.4
L1 JLrii 1- l-: -'i - iui'J - r' Lr'' :l !1
lf rlillf,,a
-- J!L -r(,J
t
+
: *al:r-, .r:'-t:he:-ange i:ii.=fsr;:,r, pe:':l-fa:':: J:I'r'L=g:::''l:::3::*€:t !Jlr- 3S::'e i:i"tS::':
:f: ^r,^, l.'i --ri,i
-i.--^-r -^,:--.*.-r:
1:iie:-L;:rrl.r..,;iil .4tr',,1 f,'.-
I a*J!r'y - iuru-!y -- *'"'"'".- i." :

Itrrhat is the ir**Grtance of anafTsing deta?

- 1. ii;i:eS i;re:a:= s!i:-:;le f::::s1'::':-tr:: sl'-
:.-- -;-i;: --*--',,c)::,,.r.,-l t-la i.1' a"-_:t ^:;::t::r:
'-a:i J- sl 1,.1,:Es *l' I
-: -'
5.3.5 Evaluating data
Thismeanspassing'iudgementontheresultsbychoosingthebesttreatrnent. maize
as follows: variety A has prod uced highest
N/o using the above reiults one can evaruate the research
yield of 4500Kg/ highest percent yield of 37 '5o/o'

What is the importance of evaluating data?

recommendation is made'
It helps in drawing conclusion for the research so that
5.4 Report writing for agricultural experiments
research'
5.4.1 lmportance of report writing in agricultural
oTocommunicatewithotherscientistswhomaycommentonorquestiontheresultsormaywishto
build on the findings by carrying out further research'
o and recommend the best action for them to increase
To inform farmers the results of the research
yields.
o To produce a wrlrren IeLUIu it-'t i"''t ''it''"--'
their money was put into (for accountability
o lt enables those who funded the research to see how
sake)

5.4.2 What is the format for report writing

for agricultural experiments?
vii)
Materiars and methods vi) Design of the experiment,
i) Titre ii) rntroducilon iii) Aim iv) objectives v)
x) Recommendation'
Results viii) Discussion of the results ix) Conclusion
lt is written on the first page of the report'
Title: This is the heading (Topic) of the experiment. subject
rt must be as short as possibre. rt shourd have
rt gives a summary ottr,e main idea of the research.
variable'
ot1f,e study (dependent variable) and independent
Exa mples
yield'
1. A report on the effect of different planting depth on maize
7. A report on the effect of different varieties on maize yield'
3.Areportontheeffectofvitaminsupplementonthegrowthofbroilers. are
in titre 1 and 2 is maize yierd. rndependent variables
The subject of the study (dependent variabre) of broilers'
in titre 3 the subject of the study is the growth
pranting depth and varieties respectivery where as
The independent variable is the vitamin supplement'
or the
is the first chapter in a report. lt
gives the background to the study i'e', the history
lntroduction:This
currentsituationofthetitleforexamplewhatvarietiesareg.,*nbyfarmersandhowtheyhaveaffected security''
'finding a better maize variety will promote food
yields. lt shows how the research is important
,what varieties wilr be studied and what else wi, be studied i'e', plant
lt also shows the scope of the report 'This report covers
gives key contents of the report for example'
height, survival percentages, leaf colour.' lt collected'
rnethods used, design of the experiment' data
the objectives of the experiment, materialiand
made'
results, discussion, conclusions and recommendations
possibre for example 'the
of the research. rt shourd be as brief as
Aims: rt is also referred to as the purpose yield of rnaize''
purpose of this research is 'to find out the effect
of different depth of planting on the total
To find out the effect of different varieties
of maize yield oR To find the best maize variety'
They specify what the research is going to do
to achieve
objectives: These are specific aims of the research. be specific'
purpose into smalr units. Research objectives should
the,Aim,. They are a breakdown of the
Measurable, attainable, Realistic, Time bound'
Examples of research obiectives
i)Determiningtherelationshipbetweendepthofpiantingmaizeseedsandtheyield.
ii) Establishinjthe effect cf shallow planting on maize yield'
Establishing the effect of deep planting
on maize yield.
iii)

Page 29 of 66 I Complied by: Mrs' tr4'C'

Kayembe I 0 995 386 388
 ,l-^
( !ts- vr L1-;i, i

i r-e\,eiii
Fertiii-:e r Sasai iress:r,g

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1 i, rLL.LC) LL, rJJurc- ,s vc-E) . ,'j ::liarl.S. :-.C\ir jaia r', as collgct=d ": j
: r1l, q-_: !r,
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r !o
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T=hi,a ?'1 Jr r<'..:ri:,r :ra.1-i.o

!''lusbandri'P"a:t:ce F.er*,re:ks
I l{

,_... r,--) {r:, v,i }i, ,i

= r.a..-:-, -.,- -::

Design of th3 er,Seriri'.e;t: ihe '.1':,e :f :r pr:-.:",=ii."; i€.';: JSrt :J-;r,3 :f,: i€se" i'::-, ': c:3\,, r, i:,e r.:::,:
^'{^...;*4:..-^i^-r.,-jL..^,,.i-,^^'.-.,,:.-_L-*^^..;..).3,.-...]a.-:---.^.,'...j--^.,,.l-,,.;.^^'
j,.tr,.'E. l:,=,:=-i r-r-u.;s.,JU.i.:Ja-.L.::-i--=J3.,-,lr,il,i :
-'lu=>t<:l:5:.1-lr-c.CUJEIur'.'\::= -'=el.ptai;i,::i,',::
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i cl IJJ; rl,):- :. l-: : :i-.lLc .ts" i :: ;*:Ji,.,l ;.i= ::J :: I i. :=:,
=r.-.r..
Pesults:Tt're ::s- Lts Lf i:'t i-)';::;:1e i,: ce; i: i::€s.-i::t :..i1?';re grap.hs, i::,::l- gi-=pls, izl :s p': a:,:::_i,
;ar g'arIs a:iai L,i::i3ia:is. E=ch a'l:g::=t ;:-r:s: L: icll:.r,=j b,.a::;e;:)'ri"n:t;t:,:i t:e ::=i:t'ssu3s
^r^^--.-)
D!SCUSSlCnCftheresUlts:Te:e:tSu:tS?:e-=.: r.i2i::{:-.^':--:-.r-:iiJ..;r..::"i.::.,'i.'n.--1,^=..1
JrL.:i-uc.,.i , \1.r.;.-s. .; 1 l-,v_r_iU ;.;-:^^*
l:isr.E:: -'= _::.i
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.:rs::,'el -ur;:_q j::a i.:;i-=cii:n'f,r 3)i3::,:i:: 'lri.i:r, rel:. llr::i=i'if l:-a:cn.::, nla:'. ,::s-l:.g, P=-:i ,-. 1
;i--^.^
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;--;i -.^:-. , -.
c:':a-'r,n-:^:b€rcf i::i'es;--'*iii=i-,I,ii;n:=rcli'ru;lsperplant3:,i:rltit:;ze,Sul,,: .:l
-.--.-;^^+:^-
<= .iiii.;'"1-.:i
F,=; L:llrcIC'/ JCLL=,,.;5=
=LL.
Ccnciusion:T:,s is a flnal s:at3r:ent \,,:i:1, s'-':,;:.3-;s:s ".:: resJ:--s :y i:e:.:ii1i:3 -:::::: --rea:l-,=:':3ii:
:.< n:-:-rrr:-.^: tr^rr'--*rl- rTL^ L.-. *-:?^ ^-'--..;- lJ r,t r^^-..:: i+ -"^;. ^^".1^*^.1 /=,^..1i/-J
.r d-,!,r: !;,.v=. Lt -j.c,:iiJi:, r.tt -€)r .:,-= i3:lt.r uCLaJ,.= iLJiL!.--=5 liis.'::-\,=.i ,.'-,-i -{ -f,L:e
Ui ,.5 -.-
,r
. c..CJl vt.uX,.. ,| :ru -t ;,.J .. i- -! ,ur-5 J f, -c-.:J -ii U*. C,.,\'=) Jl :.= -*,:.;;=,, ri= _, -itC lc-:;:5 : ;-
^^^t-,-:-
di icl\'>t5.

Recontrnendatlon:This ls a Eiece of ai';!ce c'ffei-ed lc farmers t:iiine tnenr .+.,hat to d,i ta.
What is the intpo'rtamce cf r'.rrit[$g reccrnrner:!.atisn cn tl-re research findings?
T3 il:;Sir.i+:2:--,.;'. t3 aatie an .C:iCi'l On l[-c -;ce--'r\ -t''- ^,''... -.1 :i - - :n--r,-,,,,, 7:-'. '. '21 1-1^i ;n-'n-

Charact*ristics cf e gccd recetr'men,iati*ft

o it ;s j-rsti:;*,r by :i: ei::er"ce i.e., lr,e :3ta a- c li is su;'p:,rieC ni, rne :r''-e:pre::::3n i:isc-r:si:'r.1 :f
. ii,:s xase f, 3:, c.f,:,:i*ii:^,. G '::s iJ-r:,i ::s:i :- i::is iJi ^.c:c ^-::i^.]
l-.!.;1.;.--.. .r .:<i-:::t:i
*-,..*-..-!v.,srer,u,i^-a^:r,r!.-.-- --h:i,s
,.i- Z t:,^-7.*-,=-.f,:-..r-. ,r^,.r-r--.*.;..t- ;-: r"::':ri.. ..=.,..,,
-f -,-..-a.iL=,fq:.:E:::.,-:uii5:LrL.i.a.:t:\C; =.)'
'.:,'beCa*St ii:i:):-,:€S ilttt:S:, :.::,: '=-:',i.: j:.::f ll.:!.i ::-r l.= -'1^,1 qr.: "c ^t- i-^it:+:rc":e.-.t,
Ci:.:: f,?t3 is .,s: -s:j:s'::r's;":: rar-:--s - ial-e =::i:r;rr:ra::le:..; .:.:l:tl, ;u.-li ;;;:;, :. :t
---itr^ '-^ .+--^1, ^*,J -'.-,,c-,+
.=JlJ!a:.1 (* r .c lc:.:c=l\- -:^-.:-^*:-- :-!e::.q
i:5'.1 5 lJ -,.- -5 ..

Revie'x questi6n$
a a^, ^- ^-_-
.=1.=- -L
a, --r. a_. _L-.,-
-,, - ==: :: :: - i.5 lE:- -> -.
-:-._------i I .-:,: . -3:l; :-r tll
: l-*-:::--, *:. ,-= :.:!---=-, :^:;.:_-^,-_,.-;---, ;:C3J:'-iC-,-
.i,i
utt li tc:r::i*..ir l.estif i1'::: ir,ii,,r".
oi u=. -,) - := -_' - U' ,l=i _ :.= L i.. . tr:i.l:= :.;:i:..
i--r C ,e -,:, h,,'o;:::c ^::-.iI r'r2r'!i::-.:c"-.::::.i'1 -:-.= r,.:t-.:r3:',i.
 =-...r-,^ 11- -^_..,'_ -t -. j-_J.^
.a:_...
l3::j lz::.er-i;f -: 5
c) !1rnie one conci';sion on th3 experin^re:i pe c'f feeci i*rumber af eggs iaid
t[ | s:. a,a!

l. Fr;':r lii.: tc carri :i,t a :€s:':::

2 ci,ss i',culC
': ilSli i.rreai 1an
:he =ff=ci of the i::l:viir^g Cu:::i:r cf l';:'': 2:l-'' S t 1--:
3hrs, ltrs and 5h:s o:r il.e nur:,:erc;:ggs:=:J :" , Cotton seed cai:e
Hy'iine chickens in f':ur separate khclas'
a) Conrpiete the taLlle 23 to shor',r il-'e ;esea:-ch Tabie 23: F.es=arch des!
design that can be used in the exp:rim:ni'
Chlcken i(n'3ia ii: iliJL!. !
b) i{a:ne the i\"pe of experirrental des;gi: I
coi"r,PleieC in'2a'-
2
c) E>lpiain any ttuo u'ays in u'hich a rep'ri-i irci:i tiis 3
.^-----h
! !l
ir irrnar'1
I .J Il r
:-f I r'
_?'
F'Jr
=:=C ' 4

rr!n rrar}ta
^f

TOPiC 6: GEfTDER At\dD AGRICULTUR.AL PRODUCTIOTd

ir,-rpaci cf gencier i-oles in agi'icuiiurai
This topic lccks at gendei:-cies in agriculiurai proiucticn. The
prccucticn'
pr.aducticn:nc neeci fo:" both n"ren a3c \t'r3:"nan tc pa{icipate in aSricuiturai
What is the ;nea*ing cf the terrn gender rcies?
- Ger.:;er raies in agriculture means scciai!y and cultur-aily accepta'hle duties, functions and
:espc:si:il:ties perfcrmed b'r' ;31=t c:-;e :r'a :s i:i pr=:::c:i ag':i :ul::;'e'
6.iExampiesofgenderrolesinagricuituraiprodt'lctian'
* \ril;ii:en proiuce fcci crops r'"'hiie rrre:^' cash :-ips'
,,','h l: ia:a: fa:::' a:':r:ls a:e :aI3: b,' :n:n'
+ \rii3:ien car-e srriall iari-;"1 ar1inrais e.g., chiclten, d:.;:ils
i,r'cfi€ir snraii fai-nr airirais. lulai-i:eii;-'g cf
lr';ti I trt lE6Ii= in riark:iing cf ia:ge fai-;"n animals v,.,hi!e
ii-r
r
r;5t grcps is dcne b)'n:e:i vLhiie for fccJ crcps is :one byitt"nen'
o ''t,hat tc prcduce, hcvu rnulh t: prodr.rce, l',c'v to p:cduce
li4ajoi- declsion mal..ing is done bi,r'r,en e.g.,
ciecision rnai<.ing is do;ie byfemaies e.g. ir;heii tc plai':t, \ir:irei'i tc
l'ai"-uest'
v,rhile itl:;-rci-
C ir,rJ:L Vr';ir rtj'
shelli:3 v;hile rr,:st :1::1 us3 hiSh levei te:1:':'l:gies'
o 3.3., clstrai;:: :r livestocll, ccnstructic'n
T;-ad;.tici.lalli:, there ai-e cei-tain tasks that ai-3 d31e x'1 r,i3i-,
iii'estock'
of iiYestock kraais, storage sti-uctures, plo';ghing using clien, diencnir'g
5.2 lmpact of gender roles iil agrlcultural proiuclon
Cecisicn on hciv to Use;t' This resu:ts
r Li:nlted accessto land ovunership hence i,r,3iilen canl]3i niake j::is':;l
i:.r .:.',:::c p:o:-::t,cr s.:,:: :*.;en \..h,] 3.e "..::.i3:e:.::.:
ci ll."lli.;3 p:efe:;:sh cr:;s ic
f^-! rr,rrc
!r ! pJ,
tuJJ
la:-,i vu'hich is usec as a cciia'Leral
e Limitec access to c:edit facillties since nrcst irycnie n do not o''i'n
h=ir:: l:'i'f::d p:c:ucien'
sc they have lci; capitalto e>rte;ic ti-reii fa;'i":ing busintss
r Tir:ie c+r-rsti-ainr,s since i\,cmen have tc iaiarr,= fali:ii' cici-es aiJ
fa::l'ng aciii';:ies 3s ihe i-3iiit
:.:Sr fari:i::,g aCr:,::ie S a:e :lOt aS:"p13:e j ,;l l :r'e r:S';i::"rg i- O i:i" ag:iC-''*ral p-3lJ'l:l:i"i '
tlaini:rg sei-"'ices, s:cic:'u'-';rai
. Lo\!,aicption cf :e:::,cicgy due to ii=lteC a:.ess to e).:te:tsi.n a;:'J
r.il.,!S : rJ i:,t :=,.,tls :f :i,-:.:;C: . Tl- :s' =s.i -s i.'. ir'",' f ::J ;i'lJ ; :ti :':"
pesi enc iisease c:lircl due tc ii::-e
G Lc\r",quaiitv piaiu:e since v.,rn':en dc r^,:t;r'actlce:i:::'eiy
^^- l>-+--.;^+-
LL'i Li o i, I L)'

c Lcr,.; irccEe sin:e t}l'ciier, ;r-c'iure ic'.^* vieics because cf ll:rlted ac'tss lc laboui"
6.3 The neeo foi'b.cti: rr,er: and wanren to paniripate in agriir:itureI proCu#;ion
* Thei-t is cc:pei":ticn:,€ti,!,een it',e r"ian anci ii.:nan in ai, r:":-,.i.3::i,\'ii-:as since::cit c:r:ii-ii:utei
;:'.i:= :::.:i::t:::'-:: 3:i,,/::)'lc 3t lc:.: ::-ce ::-:il-::,: -, .-: :iiai.
c i3!:.-rji--..1!:-;';3;e.,'ng:f ,--,e :.,'r,erSi':Cf :.:€;,le:,]:iS:r=r:=:,J:r,.::'.i?ll-lli-Clul? lilri
{€i --. -- ::'Cl::e.
.- --3 a-^
3:l ;:. ' ri--
-';r: S.i:,JS
^,,--l -^ ^-+ i,'rii€

G ;i p':'J::.:l=s a s:,::ei ,isi::t :-.1 i-.;.:.s.:.,;ty i:;-.-l,e::l=:';:.:- -j:3-:-'5:::t :'{:h;r iI:b*'-:c

'f
:: :ec:sicr :n:i:;:3 recess:ri ;:r tre ertl:: .-i=:: i::prci'=.
c The vroik o:-t ihe far.'.lr v..iii :e fairi'E disrributEd L:etir,,een nie;'i a:;i i,''n',":r:e:-ll';i:.g 'n ii,-r,=;l f.:::r
L:-.'.'
- - - r-ci.'J i-l:L, n:,--l!:., :'r-i -,ia''':-, :--.-*-u--i'-:
,J! 5 l=ji-= ,,5tlqu3t ") ='*uJ= '-'(r tr
o The iescrii-aes iike iand anC capllal beiongtc botii genCers hen:: e'.,3i1 ihe r'!ci^,'i3n can Llse ii^,: iari
io a:c:ss ci'e:,t for high p:'oi;clic:-i"
c it;:-,:tl'.,ai:s bcth genders io w;ill la'j a'.: ;:::l*e r:;i-: ,.'::i:s s,:;: lie'r'i,:1.:: c:i's'.li=i:i':
oecis!ln on "ahe activities io e ca1e i;r:l;;i;g i;-'c::-'e u:!iisaricn :ij ir;esin-;e:":t'
' ? - - - i- ,. ^ - -'-!- -. i-
U.i I i',9 f O,e Ci r,"Ci'tiel't iir fii3r",,'rl, ircirS;Oii5 Lir -gi,!*.-r rqr t-! vse*s.!!\
*. il: *;i-'r j::'sj:-; i:t
i','c:r3:'r c:: .:..'::,ej .:r :ai:i:3 ::.;1,f,r :l::is;:-.s elC :t,:, ::i :-::::::':-,:: ir-'

ctrn..uita';i::i i'.,;:h:r:li'n,;s;ards. This i: L=c:u': :f s:::ai c'-:l:-i'ai ii;ii;e:,ce.

L,. ..-,---,-
aie J\'\1 -'i-l=.1

..i---;^^ +- ;.,.1----i. ..,i+i,.

Exan:Bles cf rnai:r sicns n:ade bv i'u'rnen in cons ujLa-:u:l Yilirr..i:,i ^:ts -:u)uG r*f,
:t TL lil= -,rE
- r -^ Slf .:::,:S t3 {i:.i, .
I -l\,C

::i 5il' r! :f c::t::::: -;::l ;:i:i'i-'::'-::i1 3,3.. a'i:l=,3:a:s, ;:g..

ii:i
t.'l i!r^.i.
-r'I:u
-- -.'t,4
-
-.?: i,-iTt:-,.r!!.--'l::i.-,i
Jv ::::::;:l;::.
r, -
i.e., :e:l::iag\':C 'JSa S1S:€:1 iC uit)
i'-,\. !n-rr -,':rh;.r -.r,:i .-- t1
trc? lCi-. i'-4----:'-\ :=I
-.-.-3'r

E;:plain tveys of i*.rprouing rry3i1lerr's c,entribution ta decisian rnaking.

- ,u,.t:t*,=:-,::: s::';i; :'r.'l ,a:g: ,3-r: :C .hal:l-::1' ::;i c:-,'.::: ,i.
'l-'l:-C\' ::
- Ir,c:l;l:;,3 -r:C:': \'],/lr.-'Ir11 :f :a:: z-=i:i;"-Lrai ala'p=1.:i':s j: i,':-=:S ::-:s :' =':
i' :,--.',,:.r. i. : .: :i:: ils.
- ii.n:tc,,,e \\c,i-:1:i-, eJucatic:i lei':.s ,c
-.[-.=r ii.:y a:e;i'r a]]cs::i:'t::'-i'.= :i;l.t 3icis,:,i.
- ?r:,,::: :;r_1.-: aif l :'cap.,ial :o ."..,1=:-1 r-f i-:: t:1?\, :? 1 71:-::=i^P. t^ -a^,^io ,r^'c <= :'rL
ait:::.ati, : e :t:t:.s.
l-aL,ie i.,i: Si:e ci;e:,: c;ii:',.ate': :1' r:;'a1t 3:l I::3i3 l'i€a33C hc;::h::is
:^-;
.,.J - --
),<
l-l
t,3,1 r .^-:--- ^: !-.-.-'- I. r'_-:rer ni:ll:
estisils
Be.*,ie.*,_, q u i-^;-.; ^-,.--^-;. !.^-'-^r ^^,.-^L-
..J-:=, rJ -r.-
;)
.:arJ=J :- -)=',-' :.: -=aJ=u
i. Ta:;e 14 sttJ,'s sl:e cf l=r,d
c"5 L3
jc:=lc
-.,1r:,,--ei rr. :1^
c.-q-1.3 35 125
i':::: f:=::l :: JS:i : :lS' .:
-i.---.r'
-)
rl
a^:^.,'^+^
- -
-L. !C- -J=,^-^^-i^._^
-=. -t:= .1a 1:l :::
:-r!
^::^*-t-:^--^-. ,.h1
,=:.ic::,ct: :=rJ f\ :r I
i.- CJ! \=
^.. ^ :^*-.1
:'r'i.i
L-+..^-,-
i rv L':ri'\:r:l
.-) :
U.i -..: 1ll
-^; 1a h-
a:tJ u,I .,4.

i':5e 3? ctii ,Cl:rpiiet' bi': t'r::!' l'{.1.;''1,'gr1i"e I i: :!'!:t': l';'

T0PIC 7: FARi''ritfiG SYSTEF'*1!S

This lof lc desc,:i:e; ti,pes cf farri^,i:'g SfStem aii r'r-,e rr ex3:i^ii:es ci-!l ir''31s :rl '.','llci !-,te:si"'e fai'i,ir-'lg
sYSiem c2r :.1;l;,,1 1 ti:e g:-ci"'lng ponuiaticn'
7.1 What is the meaning of th€ term farri^,ing si"sterns?
af lanC, labcur and capital
Farming system is the rva;, a farmer organises, plans and uses his or her ressurces
icr crop anl :;.'*::tcck Pic:ucti::.
7.2 Types cf farnting sYsterfts
These are Er:tensive far-ming sysiems and intensiYe farn"ling sirsteni.
7.2.1 Extensir,e farming sYstem
This refers to a farming system that uses low Iei,els cf labcur, capital ar':,i technciogv
cn a large land. The
tech;rclogy'
system results in lcrv yielC per unit area sirce there Is iciru use of iabcur, cap:talani
Fx;riri^.les cf e ).:ai3;\'e fai"::,li:E si's*.ens
i. Shitting crritiuaticn: iiii: ii,ee i-rS fai';-,.;3 a pl:t a:,: a:a::5:::":g :::a: a::::r.ai'J"'r-:::r rii: :urr :'rLir:i'11
+L-
^-
On iflt!;lJL i) trxr
-!^r;^ ldu:LE.j'
^'.L-"c'rj

ii. Bush falEcwing: Ti-iis ii"leaiis farming a pict anC teirpci'aril'; lea'-,ing il fcr a cr se'.'eral i/ears tc
"'ear
regain fertility and i'eturning to it later'
ra;-rch in ledza,
iii. Ranching: This means r-alsing a feiv cattle cn a vei'y large land. Dzaia:rYai'rra cattie
and liuti in Salima.
ir,. Free range: This means raising iivestock by letting the;'n finC thei;' c',1'n fee'C.
rau\dli(o cf extenstve ferm :^-
i; ie -..-+-
5\'>LCri'^^ I

a It is che=p s;nce it i:es n:t i-ecutre g,i:at us: cf e>:pensi,3 inp.jts e.g. i-,5::j se e d, cher,icais
There is ioiv labour requirenrent per unit area since there is little i;-nprcvemei-,ts on the
G
iand
C polluti:n of the envjrorime;'it is reiuceC since vei'y little or no chenricais a:-e useC.
i.ecl-rilcicgy used.
o it is easir to practire/does not require n:uclr skili due to ior,o' leveis 3f
Disadva co< of :\:L=:lt

" {ielis are lci'.':ue t3 l:'''; use cf ::rp;ts anC 'e':hnci:3i"

o it requires iai'ge land t* proCuce enough focd for il^re grcv. ing ;':p- la'ricn.
a it e>lposes the land tc enosion leading to scil degraciation since !arge areas ai'e ciearei'

7.2.2 intensive iarming sYsterns

on a small piece';f
This refers tc a farrni;rg systeffi tiat uses high ieveis cf capital, labcur anC tectncicgv
lanc in g::cu.ri:g c:-ops anc raising l;vestcck fci" niaxi;'nu::i prod'.lctlcn.
Intensive [ivest+ck farming systern ini,ch,es keeping large nun'cer cf aninrals o: a si-naii
iand anC using
large quantity of food, water and technclogy to obtain maxinr'-trn -t'ields.
irrigaticn/ use
tntenslve crcpfarmingsystem lnvclves use cf high leirels cf techncllgy irlle i::recha:-iisat:oir,
nf hvhrii c.+^ls ei?:1,c:ls o:t a sri^,:il larl ro :L:a!r ::;a):il: J:r l elJs'
Tabie 25: sftcv;s exa:.nples of in"r-ensii,e larr"ning -(\'steiis anij hci,,r thel' .nciease
iol)d supply a;^;C iheir
iimit:tinnq
lrta*cirro F=r=,ins L.I 11^. + l-"= c\f clg m increasss facC su Limitat!cn
l^i!.-^
Mlxed farrrring: i) lt sa':gu.t-:s::.: i=-:"tr l:t:i::'es 3'a:c-l ^- Jt rr'u:rvsii'.D

+Lr

liuestcck per-ishing sjrce il,: fa::',er it''ll ce!'::'d the +;^ ar

ci": ^,,t_-.-
tr,Ll L'l= L'
--^qc Jir ur L.'-
The grcraring cf croPs anJ =l
t:.,=:'r^t- -r:r, \:
iaising livesiccit c:r the sane a:hei. er:e.3riSe.
l:.-[.irc
t-,-. ii) it g;i,:s:rae fa::'lEl'a :i;c':3 Salarced C,et f:or:r ci'cp
I ia:'.^rl ,::rl',.^'q ;i\ 1.,4rrc r:r'-:l i<
-r!

iii] !t eiia:ies the fai-l:er' :c Lar\1est fooC li:roug:^,;':i :€ ir::: f :: lhe ''e :jl ls
:nt4_ar'<p<
,!! y,.-!--
ir,5 \'::i. -
r ^L^..-:^---;;^- t-:.,
LoJ-r-i J:,,:<i <

iage 33 cf 55 1 Con"rplied hy: lJis. t'I.C. l{.ayer:'r: I i:5 i35 l-iS

'
 vi it srr-eeds:l-,3 ta':;-rel's :esh inco;ne;rc::-::he sel3
''i
c:'0 --r- !',:ai1.^r'

i) P:: r':ce::i:e: :;'a:iie a :d iiseese .3:r:rol anC

s ilLabcur c:r:'ian*l :,g
Stall feedirrg,lier-c grarir'tg:
pi3i.rC:3i:i- 1:r 35i';r11" =331 rst bed \teaii:er 3nd i;i lt is exneil.s:re t.l
Raising iivestock by fee:ing
preoatsi's :e-,ie i ;gn ir-o:iij;tlcl' prcvicie a baianced
then: ::-r their perisrl staiis.
i;) in.iies :r:l:l::i!i ri 93cc ;ual;ty :1i;nire vJh:ch
!ncrea;es .rcD P:-ci'.lc:icn ithen aspliec in :he f'elC' iil) Const:-u::ion cf
iii) it iuii use;i:?s:"r:e
malr.es s;nce th=': is ro s3eciai stails ::ai, se
per J;-i-,,!+
selective gi-a:;:,g lenae hiSi'r !ivesicck D'od'Jctiair
urit area 3f sasiure.
Enab!es p133r-tciicn lf iiaie rneet cf :;gh ouaiitY
;!a .-ri.5'or f.rnd
s!:ice ii\restcal'l dc noi io':se e:r
Crap rotatloft: t l-re gia\.t'iiig ci ii Ccn:e:.'es s;ii li cl'..'s: a:::l: ::e r:r:r -:'=:r i I : : r LCt:i

rcta:i3i1 3i-33:al1',iie si::e th:l'reC'ce sf':t of

-r-.<.14r/
qvyJt nat ha
-i!-{e.sri a!-:1",'],'1,1 liP S2r*rP
^.,_;r_hta
p!ot in paiiicuiar sequenie rustfi.
Controis parasi:ic \'.reeCs e.g., irritcir ''veei by deoriving
ii) The neei io g:ci{
ior"der-) everY yea !'.
*.^.c fnr-i .-nl r:a
+L -* -{ -ts,- . .:iJL'
:,1.!-
!ir=rll -'l :ir-.,
iil tnrreaipc <rir fer.,i::rr' SlnCe ieqUi:ies ilCil-ldgd fix
t", t r!.
rr3lle:'ctatton
-J-'vJ

;rit;-cgen intc tre srii.

;,.\
r\i l:-!,!ra srn:: :i'ilii.
iii) Conti-cls spe.lfic pesis ai,d ciseases b'; ';:reailiirg ',-YJ'l
tneir i;ie.i'cies.
1v) Alic.ts ci?!s is it;ile fuii use of scii nuii-ients
il-ci'l
dlffei":;^rt scil i;i'=rs i, shai,cw l-$!iei ai"e
+ .,,:"1: i,=a ..^^^^t ^"-
'l-oi"s
^l+^-^-L-
cilEriiclt! tir-'r u+L
cll :: a i'
hlrxel crcn=ing: :r: gr:r';'rq i) ;t :eii..;:es iie :isi( ;f crcP ;ailure sir'ce ii:)i-ia cicil i I1'{
i^ ^;i!i-
ect''alilsai:
rii cinr:
fa:is':te ia:-;er' .r.'iil ceper:C oi-i ihe cllle!-' L'g rltr;!uiL ili!*
_-
a:
plci ei i:ie sa:1::;i-ie. iiI;r l,:rrc:q=q -;ili i',eii 3ei- ui^:;i a:":A !i:iIe illi-.\ , = -ir r< a:1-q
u.er! r,iei
\-:

c;-rps 3ie -iliig :i-ie s;iie ie t'j at oilce'

have iirerent
i?il t- -o; .^t<'i.: <r'g:i c.t 3?S:s a:'c i.=e :ses.l:c:
-^^,,;*--^-.---
iL:'--:Ui. E.,,Ei;t,-

il) l: -=.:"''res :-:-r s ..lr

tr: ci'op ,.t lii ;ci as a ba:ii?i- againsi ihe cest ct- .^ *^--^^ -li-Lf
.i i.,o. c;E cil :,r-
Iisease-ca'isi:r g iiga iis;'1":.

iv] :: sa ia;:,;:- 5:ra'3 s:i:3 cpE:'a:!cns ce': be dci.e

"es ii:i I
r.rl u1.3
i! --{ ris*: ie : <
:t 3i1ce foi b,:t:, :i3ps s3 tle iabaui'saired can he 'ised i- - ;ii3..-,.i-
fci'cthei' 3:cf :J.!i!re acti"rities to brina mcle iroC'
---..
,i,3\'UC

\ t Fn:l,,i*<
.'1 L.iaJl rr:-::.,q iii:re;f .;a:!i:ii-igr e.g., i::::S fil: -=!ts:= '31!'-i! -l"J
* ^'. 'r:,;o AiFs'p-l
:-:::-Cg:-, ".1--: ..,::=l J," :t-:r.r (.,:r : 'E =c': 'i:

a;i ciir;blr'g b:e:s'

as a --:ai:e f-i'ri ::,e "-^,:--^aa"'a

v!] it ensu:es a jequa:e seii ccver ir;hicn cciti-cis ssii

e:-ls;t:, 3-: s jp-?:-s Y, =3ij. :;I :-:-r=
-- .-.. -r^i :-.^^--
d.,i:\ .r-'-r.* Jr -
:- j:-:J
-.L -
= -1 a- a a*,-l
,-
.ir:: iE,,= -.

i:;-a:€ s::' :: ''e: '".,,licit c: i::ois scil i Sa:^,e as ;:'l:xei

4.gicf:restn'; l:..s :s e svs'-e:- ii i". :*,s.;:es .
-_ .'-,r:r<,'r=-'<
---i J IJJ: , crc:pir3.
of gi-cir,'ing ;i-ibie a:o:s a;{d t^-^-i^-
.->iJ,. C .---
I >=: ^:^..^i
3J;\
=;
i.tes tc3::liei ::l :iie 3a=€
:

a: Qa,C: ;ii- :::';:l C:-ii3 :: ::: la:C- ; S: ' 'l ':-'

:€ *:'j
t^.- --;- -r . , i-r-v
iJi Ui;iE; =

ll:"- l;4:,f i: Cc=pil:*. ir': i'.,:'s ii C li'-: !''::'3: ; i 9'!5 :3': 33!
Rotational grazing: This is a i) it gives time for pasture to rest and prociuce i) lt requires a lot of
grazing systern ivherebY younger palatabie grass for livestock feed. This capital for fencing.
livestock are allowed to graze eirsures high procl uctivitY.
a ii) Ccntrols parasites by breaking their life cycle.
section of pasture for some It controis soil erosion because overgrazing is avcided
time then moved to another
section.
Continuous croPPing: i) lt ensures that the land produces food every year. i) Soil may be
Growing crops on the land ii) lt consei'ves the soil since land is under cover mcst exhausted unless
every season without resting of the time. manure is applied
it.
Deep litter system: A sYstem i) Chickens grow fast because they cio not loose i) lt is expensive
of rearing poultry by confining energy in search fcr food. ii) lt is labour
them in a house allthe time. It allov",s hi stocki rate demanding.
Batterv cage svstem: A i) Esss pi'oCuctica is high. i) Expensii,e
ii r li .- ,^h^,,.
system of rearing PouitrY bY ii) it is easy to coiiect eggs. rt,/ lL l> laJJur

confin them wire cages. demandin

Vertical farming: This is the i) There is increased crop yield from a snrall land. i) lt is expensive
practice of growing croPs in ii) Farmei's ai'e able to cultivate a large variety of crops ii) Large energy
vertically stacked layers. The at once because ci'ops cio not share the same plots. demand due to use of
common choice of strustures iii) The crops can be gi'ov,,'n in doors hence there is no supplementary light
to house vertical farming competition of space with native plants and animals. like.
system are buildings, iv) Crops are pro:ected against bad weather because
containers, abandoned they grorv in doors.
structures.
Biological farrning/ Organic i) ltis environmental friendly since does not cause soil
farrning/ Eco farming: This is pollution.
the growing of crops using ii) Food products do not have any organic chemical
organic inputs only. residues.

7.3 Vdays in which intensive farming syster{l can support the groro*ring popu[ation
. prcmotes continuous and maximum use cf land using continuous cropping and mixed cropping
hence it is possible to obtain high yield on a small land to ensure food security.
r Ensures use of high-level technology e.g., use of effective chemicals, high quality seeds so there is
increased production on smallfarms so that farmers can sell the sur"plus to earn more income.
o lt ensui"es soil conservationf improves soil fertility though use of agroforestry, crop rotation, mixed
cropping resulting in an increased production of raw materials for the expansion of inCustries hence
creation of employment for the people to earn a living'
o lt reduces risks and uncertainty through diversification (mi>led cropping and mixed farnring) since if
one enterprise fails peopie can depend on the other thus ensuring food security'
r lt provides people r,-ith baianced diet from both livestock and ci-op enterprises to ensure a health
population.
r lt ensures that crop pests and diseases are effectively controlled thrcugh use of mixed cropping
where by one crop act as a barrier against the pests hence ensuring good quality produce to
compete well at the international market hence the country obtains more forex for developmefit.
r lt ensures that weeds are effectively ccntrolled through use of crop rotation iryhich deprive the
weed of its host hence high crop yielcis to ensure food security.
o lt ensures a steady and continuous supply of food and incorne throughout lhe year since the farmer
is able to get both crop and livestock sroducts through mixed farming.

Page 35 of 55 i Comptied byr \4rs. M.C. i(ayei'nbe | 0 995 385 388

Revier,u questions
1. A farmer who grows maire and groundnuts v*ants to start raising sheep and goats in addition to
the two crop enterprises. Use this infor.nation to ans\ryer questions that follom.
a. Name the farming s\istem to be ;:racticed.
b. Expiain any three t.,ays in which i,:e farming system *rentioned in (a) above can support
the growing population.
2. Give one reason why shifting cultivation is not practiced nowadays.

END OF TOPIC

TOPIC 8: FTNANCING AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES

.r v,ta IUg raor rrr oueul rrrrorrLrrrS qJ vrrc vr Lrrc ror rlr usJliicSJ ,r.3trc5EilicttL LUttuEpL) itioL t!ltti,jcltL=
agricultural production. Without funcis there will be no production. ln form two you will learn about sources
of farm finances, conditions and terrns for borrowing and ways of caiculating cost of borrowing.
8.L tt/hat are the sources of finance for agrlcultural enterprise?
Retratives and frlends: The loan is provided on trust, the farmer pays back the loan with little or no interest
charges and sometimes the money is in inform of donations or inheritance.
Personalsavings: The farmer may keep part of his income sloivly until he builds up the needed capital.
Fersonal lnvestments: The profit obtained from other personal investment may be a source of finance for
farming. Personal investments are business ventui"es rhat farmers can do to increase their capital.
Finaercial institutiol'ls: These are !icensed financial service providers like microfinance and micro credit
instituticn, Financiai Credit Association (FINCA)v,rhich proi,ide credit to sniall holder farmers.
Financial cooperatives: These are institutions r.vhei'e members save their earnings and later are provided
witn credit. These institutions are owned and cperated by its members e.g., SACCO.
f\4oney lenders: These are people v"ho provicie ioans to farmers and other pecple at a high interest rate.
Village hanks: People in the community form groups and contribute money ivhich is used to lend cut to its
rnernbers wno are in need at lcw interest rate.
Commercial banks: These are financial institutions that offer banking services e.g. National bank, New-
building Society, First Merchant Bank etc.
IVIoney and capital market: These are financial markets that oifer services for long term investments to
companies, individuals or governrnents. Common investment instruments in the capital markets are:
Shares, Treasury bilis arrd Bonds. Farmers can buy shares of companies and [ater can sell their shares to get
the capital they need and they can also use the shares as security to cbtain loan.
T1,pes of agricultunal credit {loan}
A.gricultural credit is classifieci depending on repayrnent period and type of security demanded.
Classif ication of cradit b ed cn repavment period
i) Shert term credit: These are loans for small amount anC are repayable within a year/one grou,ring
season. lt is used to finance operating costs e.g., inputs such as feecis, chemica[s etc. Short teri"n
credits are expensive to process and they are cf high risk to manage because they have iov,i security
so they attract higher interest retes.
ii) lVledium term credit: This is cr-edit which is repayable within 2-5 years, lt invoh,es larger afircunt
than short terrn credit. It is used to finance farrn n:achinery, iil,estock for breeding etc. The borrovrer
offers a collateral.
iii) !-ong terrn creciit: These are ioans fcr large amount and are repalr3glg 5 - 15 \reai-s. it is used to
finance long term capital iterns such as conslruction of far'm buildir"rg or purchase of ianC. The
borrower aiso offers a collateral.
Page 35 of 55 ! Con'rplied by: [4rs. fv4.C. l(ayei'nbe | 0 995 385 3E8
 cI Lt=
--^ JCiilC ^,.J ^,..l
asset being purchased'
ii Scft loans: These ioans ai'e cffereC tivith no or iiitie secultl'sr..tcir as the
sr.rch as iand, fai"ni buiiiings
i'i Hard Ioans: Tnese are offei'eci agaiiist i;';''ri^':i'a bie asseis as securily

8.2 Conditions and terrns for borrowlng

the lender
i) coltateral requirements: A ccllateral is an ;ssei ri:dgeij as a security lor the loan v"hich
,,viil grab in case the farrner faiis to pay. For e)'an-:pie;
Lci:g term icans are secui"ed bY titie cjeeCs'
tractors, breeding livestock,
l,4ecium ie:rn loans a:-e secui-ec by asset being,.''rrchased e"g.,
int'entoi'les and deposit
equipnrent etc' short term ioans ai'e secui'ed by ci^ap anC lir'restock
accounts'
whether the farmer is able
ii) credit worthiness or ability to repay the !oan: The lenders determine
perfoi"nance such as profitability,
to pay back the loan by looking at iaricus rrleas';rES of business
-^t,.^^-,,
)ul\'EliLyr .-i i.epayment histcrir, cash iici,,; fo;- theii'fai'i-t',:. lf the fai-mer has an outsiar'c:ng ican,
ailu
he /she may not get anurther loan urrtil the fir"st ioan is repaic.
-\'ti :r!-'Ji!'5tE::Llrrcl'rrtc ii-+'sJ'
i;i) trr,lerestraie:ii-.is:.J:t:3alaa:)'5:aI3:rli:I=-'1:
has to pay cn
ii,) Cost of bcrrowing {Fees and service charges}: These ai'e charges which the bor-rower
insurance and aCniinistration
top of .rhe interest cn loa;r. These may include ;'ecoi-d ileeping charges,
so that the bcrrcr"'er can
fees. These increases ccst cf bcrrcrving. These must be cleariy stateC
compare v.,ith other financial instituticn and i*,rai:e proper decision'
v) Grace perioC: This is ihe tir-ne ailowed before ihe fair,':er starts tc repay the ican- The pariod shcuii
pa'ying after harvesting.
be long enough to allcw the farmei'to pi'ocuce aiici stai't
r,,i) Disbursement cf funds: This must be clearly stated for example for
short and irnmediate term loans
release of ;unds is in phases'
is normally single disbur-senrent of funds ivhile long term lcans,
that speciiies paymerits civ'3i'
vii) paYmenttype: The lenCer" shouid proCuce a copy of pairrilgxl scheduie
this wlil assist the farmer tc get
the life of the loan e.g. i't,onthiy, quarteriy, and half yearly or'Tearly
^-^^^,-^r
Fr;sPolUu.
the tin^re v.ihen the c:-edit is fuii"
viiilLoan IJiaturity (Tirne of repal,rnent): t',1atui-ity of a l,:a:r i'efei's to
perlod the icwer the tct:l
due and payabie {perioC of lcan recovery). The shorter the maturity
tc higher loan pat'r'enis'
interest paymeirts over the life cf the ioan but the fa;-r,er is reouir-EC Fay
payments but the farmer pays ici"'er
The ionger the i,ratui-ity perioc the irigher tlre toiai i;rteres'r-
farnier because he/she might
lcan payments. Loan n^,aturity that are toc sna* cani']ct benefit the
A shcrt ioan maturity enabies the
end up paying back the ioan that has nct benefited himiher.
tti/B: Hvoii lcan marurity
financial instituticn cciiect the rnoney fasr and leni it to cthen bci'rovu'ers.
than the e:lsected life cf the asset being financed'
agi-icu!tui-ai ri:ks
iy) H,isk ixanagernent: The boi-ror,,,er has t3 agree tc engage in practices that ;-eriuces
r:ls!rance, use cf resistarit c:"cp rarieties, cc::tract nrarketing i:r orcitr to
iircrease chances
,:.g.,,r-,i; !
-'i :ne lcan being repaiC successfully'
payi-nei''ts eariier i-har' t:'e
);.i pre and [ate payrnent penaltias: The bc;roi','er i^nust i<ncw if nraking
---.ui-iti, ti:,e itiii ai:iact aly p=r-i=lties anJ *"hat ai^i:u::t
^---^) riidL
d<:<=u
li=ish= iri-:il Ilsl ;'r:ir' i: '
instituti'rns and :"nake pi'opei-
penalties for late pa-r,nient so that he can compare r,,rith other leriCing
J^^i-:^^
UeLt5lUr I'

3.3 tnterest
percentage of the principie (mone'v bcr-i'owed)'
An interest !.ate is a costfor borrcr,,,ing. it is calculatec as a
lnierest is the money to be paii bacx as a cost ct borrcrr''i:g'
6.3.i Types cf interest rates
These ai^e base interest rate and eilectii'e inlei'est raie

Paae 37 of 55 i Cornplieci L'y: li,4rs. li4 C' fLa'serr:'pe I C995 385 388
8.3.2 Differences between base interest rate and effective interest rate
Base interest rate: This is the rate at which commercial banks borrov"/ money from the reserve bank. lt is
also called minimum interest r-atel bench mark interest rate or the base lending rate. This interest rate
affects farmers because it influences the interest rates charged on their loans. \A/hen the base Interest rate
increases the effective interest rates in the commercial banks also increases. Base interest rate is set by the
reserve bank. This loan is given to risk free customers (those that are not likely to default after borrorving)
e.g., government, large companies and reputable organisations some individualfarmers and is calculated
using simple interest.
Effective interest rate: This is the true interest rate farmers pay on top of their loans obtained from the
commercial banks. lt is also called market interest rate and it differs from one bank to another. Effective
interest rate is calculated from the base lending rate (nominal/stated) interest rate using compound
interest payable. lt takes into consideration full cost of borrowing (administrative cost, policy rate of the
funds, insurance premiums and level of risk of the borrower) hence it is always higher than stated interest
rrfa Tira intnraet ie -:ln, 'l:+od arnh mnnth nr ennf inttnt rclrr

8.4 Calculating interest on loans (cost of bsrrow ins)

8.4.1 Calculating simple interest
A farmer borrowed K500, 000 from a financial institrution at an agreed interest rate of 25% to be repaid
within one year.
Calculate:
i) lnterest on the borrowed money: tnterest -- PrinciplexTtmexRate _ I(500,00_0_x 1x25 : K12 5,000
100 100

ii) Total amount of money the farmer will pay back at the end of the year.
Total amount of money : Principal * Interesf : K500,000 + K125,000 = K625,000
iii}N4onthlypaymentonthelo"".={3:y=K52,083.33
Advantage of using simple interest is that the interest is fixed and can be easily managed in terms of
payment. Disadvantage is that it is not possible to pay less than the fixed interest even when the agreed
period of payment is reduced.
8.4.2 Calculating effective interest
Example: 1
A farmer borrowed K500,000 with a base interest rate of 18% that is compounded monthly. Calculate
1. Effective interest compounded monthly.
2. Total amount of rnoney the farmer vvould have paid by the end of year.
3. Calculate monthiy pal,ment on the loan.
1-. Effective interest (conrpcunded monthly)
.= (1 + iln)" -l Where r=Effectiveinterestrate,
I = Nominal interest rate (18% which is 0.18)
n = Number of compounding periods per year (12)
,= (i +a.18/n)"-l
r= (1 + 0.015)12-1
r= (1.015)rr_1
r= 1.1956181.7L-1,
r= 0.195618171 x100%
Ef f ectiue interest rate = 19.5614/o

Page 38 of 66 | Complied by: Mrs. l'"4.C. Kayembe I 0 995 386 388

 ..:.:'i.I.',.
-{ir:ti i'g;,,ir'ii-lli:td= -- =A,/LiJ
--.
i"l:;:'3y:Fiir't';''"J':i::"1'-tt =i'5'-''' ':"0ti'''7':i5
:. Tr;t:ll:*: :J1t:f
.'. Toial ailior.lilt cf ncnei':l be pald = K597,805

).. l,{cni: p3i':-:e ::'. or i'': lca::

"Divice the total amount to be paic by the nun:ber cf n,::,ths cf l:en pei-icd.
,'\:Ji -'1t:l ;''qqi 7 t.q
! "L'1 -
4. Ca!:ulate effecti'"'e iiterest rate {cornpcunced C:il')'
The sanre fcrrnula ias abcrne) is usei but';l' ihi: iinie v.'ill be 355.

- it\r +' il-i"

-, .._ ;il.] - i
g.4.2 Ca[culating a payinent schedu!e. S*urce: {Financia! Lfterocy in Agriculture by I'Qa{av'ri tnstitute of
Educrtian)

inter-est is caiculated basec on the outstanding balance an d as instalnrents are

made the balance
ihe
,l^^i;-^- i=).
ucLill
an intei-est ;"ate of
Excnp!e: A fai-rr^;er boi-r'oir,,eC X1,030,0CC to be repaiC in 4 mcnthl'y'i:staln':ents at
3?6

monihli'.
Frocedure:
i. Find the fi>leC principle a::curt cii,iCi;lg tfie !33i] ar'c'J:t
b,,r :,' ihe nu:^,ber cf p:1'me:ts'
K1,000,C00 +- 4 : ft 250,000
Z. Caiculate interest on each instat:-nent as fcll*i,''s:
Fi;si ii:-iioi;ieni; K1,0C0, Ci0
intei-est K1.000.c00 x3
= K30,000 Total amori-it to ;.' pa;d l--f 50,C0.1 + '(30,t00 : K2B0'000
ica)

Seccrd ;,-;si,3i;:e,rt; Pr-incip.:/ Ii250,030 : 'Ii75C'*00

= .(1,00C t'l'3 -
r{7sc'000x3
intei-est
100
= K 22,500 Tctal amountto be p;id L250,'-1C0 + }i22,500 = KZ72,5AA
ThirC instaiment: Pr;r,c'"Fa! = ii75C,0CC = i' 5'lC,Ci-i0
- r''25C,CC0
(50C.GLJ0 \3 ;^ ra =,1 1.\n r+ 1"15,0C0:
--;r Ii?50"3C0 I,-1( nn.l - tJZ55,C'3C
lnterest 101 = K 15,0C0Total amcunttc be paiC
r .,-.1 :--,-i*-r!. Dt-!t..ci::i.e = ii50C,*0C - I:250,0CJ = i.25C,C00
;-!,-.i rJ i.,-rrU;ir lY,,i.. I
.
.K25C.000 v3
interest iil() = K 7,500Total amountto be pai'J K25C,'ft00 + ff7,500 = K257'5AA
L-l^^^-
':n:a , h'P: ent scheiuie red usln coeii,ri ^-^rL---l

r^-+^l-^h+
r! l5!ci, /:EirL Beginning Fl;red lntcra.t Drrrmsrt Tlta! a:icu:it to be;aii
No. D3ic,ILE principle
an']cunt
K1.0Ci,333 K25C, C3C K1,830,0c3 x 3
r-11 ,^r,4.1
{25:,'330 + j'a3C,CC3
L _
- t],J!'jUUU r.n n

7 i x:so, oco r.l qn n13 ;

(75C,
_ L r I
1253,t30 + [22,5C0
-illt c-r1n
10c - V'l'7)
A'anl ,1ni) Y i :-rin,1n.1
.'\ *'L'. i
: I"'1( lrl'l
3 r(50c, Occ ;' i ; n,'Il -
L'.;q alni1
: a nn
!,.)t, -
*4 K250, 00c tJ ? qn nal'l I i:250,0c0 x 3
d r *.ill:
{250,c40 + i{ 7,50c
5C0
TO'ALS (1,,3J1,0J0 K 75, Oa'l rii,875,00c

l::e 3! :r tt i Cc=,Fi;eC bt: l":i l"; C. :'.; ':-::3 ' 29=:-1 ::'i ::S
Methsd2 lF lluare-rctbad-l
lnterest is charged on full original loan amount throughout the loan period. Using the above example, the
payment schedule i,'-iil be calculated as foilows:
1" Calculate the fixeci principie amount. 1{1,000,000 + 4 : ,(250,000
2. Calcuiate interest on each instalment as follows:
I(1'000-00c x3
1st instalment: lnterest : K30,000Total amount to be paid K250000+ K30000= K280000
100

Znd instalment: lnterest {]#!fi : K30, 000 Total amount to be paid K250000+ K30000= K280000
li1'00o:q00 x3
3'd instalment: lnterest
100
: K30, 000 Total amount to be paid K250000+ K30000= K280000
r(1'000'000 x3
4th instalment: lnterest
r.00
: K20,000 Total amount to be paid K250000+ K30000= K280000

Table 27: Payment scheduie prepared using flat rate method

!n{l_:rmPnr rtl,e0 pnncrpre I !'iiei eSI pa ii f,rl ei"li , I Or-at a!'nou!'ti i-Lr ue ts-,"
no: amount
7 K250,000 r(1,000,000 x 3 K250,000+ K30,000 = K280,00O
100
= K30,000
2 K250,000 K1,000,000 x 3 K250, 000+ K30, 0C0 = K280, 0OO
100
= /(30,000
K250,000 K1,000,000 x 3 K250, 000+ K30, 000 = K280, 00O
3
.1
00
: i(30,000
4 K250,000 K1,000,000 x 3 K250, 000+ K3C, 000 = K280, 00O
1no = K30,000
Tota!s K1, 000, 000 K 120,000 =K 1,120,OCO

Review questions
1. Why it is important for farmers to take loans with full understanding of the terms and ccnditions.
2. Explain the difference betv,,een base interest rate and effectirre interest rate.
3. N4rs Phiri borrowed K10,00C from a village bank to finance her broiler entei^prise and is asked to
pay K50C0 interest on the loan. Use the information to answer questions that foliow.
a. Calculate the interest rate.
b. lf Mrs Phiri is expected to produce 10 broilers and the expected selling price for each broiler
is K3000, show whether she will make a profit or not after borrov'ring finances from the
village bank.
4. Table below shows a two:year loan repayrnent schedule for a farrner. Use it to ai"rs\/er questions
that follow.
Year Beginning balance Principle lnterest Total payment Enciing
i'epayment payrnent ba lance
1 t'\4K 10C,000 t\4K 50,000 h4K 50,000 MK 100,000 N/iK 50,000
I MK 50,000 I\4K 75,0C0
vrK 50,000 h4K 25,0CC 0
a. Calculate the interest rate.
b. Calculate the total amount of money the farmer is going to pay at the end of ioan period

END OF TOPIC

Page 4C of 66 | Cornplied by: tr4rs. M.C. Kayembe | 0 995 386 388

j r,;:i;: :,: i]RCP i{U5BA,r,{DI1Y PRACTICES tzu i\IiAiEi AfdD GROUTiDNUT [}RENLiCTICf,J
crcps
i:,:; !.;s:a:;:'i-,,:rac.;ices in fil*undnul i:cilicilcir ir,i'rli'es i;;,4 !re!alaii;i-r,:eieciing
i'*, iaize ai"re
;r,d.;r.iciicc<,.ii;hlefortheenvii-onment,sElectgocdseecfcrplanting,Plai:tingmaizeandgrcundnuts,
alrJ ia
Ha:"":s"i:3'
,,,r,'e:i
cc.xti'.,i. I:tiiiser aprlication, Fesr ani disease ccritrcl and
$.1 Land F rP- i::e ia'iisn
Land prepar.aiicn inirolves a set cf activities rnrhich are cone
on the iani in readiness for pianting c'"ops'
9"1.1- tmp+rtance cf lanC preparat!*n
e To clear the land so that plants can grcw easily'
c To bi.eak up the hard surface and icosen it hence Fromot;ng
air clrcuiation, increasing i;ifiltraiicn'
f.:;- easr, seeC gerrri.ration anC for ;ropei ri'3t penetratian'
e conserve sci! and \,/ater. \\hen riclges are iirade following
the contoui'the';' reduce speed cf run
T,o
cff and alloinu' v,'ater to sini" intc ihe soil' L;' --i-t:-t''.''^ ^^il
€ l! rl:r\' !r :L .'yr=-:r\ru=r'- *---" r-'--* -. --i-'

o it helps tc contro! pests and i"'eeCs bi' er:pcsing then to the sun'
3.3..2 LanC preparat[on activities
spaciig cf ;"idges, riCgi:'rg anC box
The activities.i:.,riclve iai-rd ciear!ng, picugh,ng, :'a:;'c\'.r"13, r,easui"il^tg
-i)-"^-
ru5lrr5. :.-^\ --^-^- -.-..J
and prei'i:us crcp i-ernains), st=nes a::o
i) Land clearing: tt ii^lrr3l'-,es rei-r,cval cf r,egetati;n (tiees, busires
.+'!m^ai tPi
)LUl

tmportance cf Land cleariag

o tt ::,:i:e: fu:--he r l=:,d pl:pei'zli:r a:*-:'::;o-'€asier e'g'' picugn:r3'
e It I-,::ps'-c e'=ii:aie p=sis a;d ji-':ases'
A farn:er r:ray
ii) pE*ughing/ tii!ing/ digging: lt is a prlniary:uiltiYation pract!ce done a-fter land cleeri;:g'
use a piough or a hce fcr lhis activitl''
trnPortance cf ughiiig Pio
and nutrient
c it bre:ks the hard surface and l:'cse::s;t to !nisro"'e aeratio:' watei'irrfiltration
d\'
^!.-,r-h!..!.! lGU:'rLl
*':'-cl 51':xp:si:g t:'':'i s*r cr pie j3.':t-:'
c ;t l':lp5 pests
"f, "i-ie "o:i^':
":':l the sci!'
e lt burres crop residues in ci'derto deconrpcse and add nutrients into
e it ccnt"rcis r','eeds by burying ti-lem'
e lt lielFS tC br-ing back ttie icst nutrients to the rsct pla:.lin$ IChs'
This is a seconiary cultii,:tirr pract!ce
jtre afier plcughing usi::3 hai'rc.1's ci-
iiii Harrcrring,Iral;?ng:
..-.t,^-

!r
t[:LHut^1 :{. * ra r { F.a rrct',':nA/ra[:ing
lar!!! vt I

rTobreak'dorvnlar"gescil!ur:rsintosrr.alifinepar.iic!es,
* Tc leveirhe,.eeibed so as to faciiitate u'i:ifcrl"n cepth cf cla:'::rg'
t ii, l-;:ips,ic ;:rcc;-pirate Ci..]p l"esid;es ;nto the snii fc,l:;st d+::irp:.i'iir.
e
Tc ciestroY r',teeds'
.- #i\.:F^ ^---*ir "rr'tr i.:-,".,j:-,e :3ll :,=1,:= iaC;i::e':::tl=aS: Of lU'.:':f'tS'
-. .+ ,r' ,-';,xJ i:l -i i)"i's Jira'ri; -a*. L i'
i,,.i^,.i: {:t g::._:.;:.-ls
iv) l*4easuri*g spacing of ridges: Riiges fci- i:-'a i:e are space: at 75:::,-gl:= =:ar,t
Ci C >iJa
r cL
^* '15crn - 80:n apa::"
'EU

lrnportance of proper spacing of riCges

e it helps to achie'.re the desli-ej r'la:t nrpuiatic;l si:cE ther"e ls nc t"'aste cf IanC'
i-':ij i-rc:e vj::e:'
e Helps i: c':;r::ii s;ii er;si:'r' slite lne Iarrlrt"S ""iil*:-':c:'::':
e *=if s:c:I:a'.e a gf,f,; s: ' c:i': l'' ' :I:: :;€ 'i-g::rl e :':s:::^
lieii
. ii rie,..elis C.3n^lpet:tjc: f:,i. res3ui-..S si.c: thei.e is a :es:-ei 111r.1 ;15;|:ti,:n in tie
*l'' !f' 'c: t ' t.
-,--- /. -., ::'Li'I:ii'::u
t-L ,,^rqn;i-l L.,. I ---.:E I :::5 i:a:13
ia,3: -=.;:
 v) Ridging: This is a ter"tiary cultirration practice. It is done using hand hoes or ox cirawn ricigers.
Riclging is done by cligging the soii in a continucus line using a hoe and heaping the soil an [he side to
form a ridge. Ridges should be made across the slope or follovuing the contour. When using ox cirawn
ridger, the wings cf the ridger make trrrro sci! heaps and a single furrcw. A return pass completes the
ridc a
lmportance of ridging
o lt increases the depth of top scil in order to promote expansion of tubers.
e The furrows made bet'*veen the ridges helps to conserve soil and water if constructed across
the siope.
o lt makes application of fertilisers, fungicides, and herbicicies easier at planting tirne.
r To facilitate drainage in rn'ater logged soil. l}rr
r To rnake harvesting easy. d
l-low to construct a contour ridge using an A-Frame 7T
lvlatertalS uSeA: HOeS, t3pe meaSui'e, SII-i:igs, pegs, A-i-rame (ICr n-.eaSUring
gradient) see figure i.8,
Procedure
1. lnsert a peg at the starting point.
2. Put one leg of the A-Frame close to the peg.
3. lv4ove the second leg until the hanging string passes through the centre {t$,
of the crossing bamboo on the A-Frame.
4. lnsert another peg there.
5. Continue process 1-4 until you get to the end of the ridge. ..',-, :. -i :-j::, r:

vi) Bcx ridging: These ai"e snrall riciges v,,hich are made at altei"native
intervals in the furrows of ridges.
c , - . r*,.,." jr"r:lf; trIaii.ri r
lmportance of box ridging
They act as a basin to catch anC hold rain water allowing it to sink hence i,rt
ejq.{ g.-
..j
r<.:
.i'
. :;
.,i'
il -
. . ;! .. .."'?*_*- r-.i,' . , r.AaL
conserving soil and water. ;ne*;-p'
:, "S _.- -
;fi*;.p
n!,,.*{e

Tirne to prepare l-and: The best tinre is soon after harvesting crops. *J -, 4*-..-.--:; -f li
f €rsc,*6 ^f+* jj;..
*'
Importance of early land preparation **J*5
'S
'dl*-
o The work is dcne easier since the soil is still moist than rrn,hen the soil ; .&,eirr :;
-.. ., .,,].
is very dry.
r Soil structure is maintained since cuitivation is done when the soil has the right moisture
content.
c lt leads to eariy planting since no time is irasted when the planting rains begins.
r lt gives enough time for t"he buried crop residues tc decompose and tL;rn into hurnus befcre
pla nting.

9.2 Selecting crops and varieties suitable for the environntent

Factors to consider when selecting crops and varieties
a) Climatic factors: The foliovuing are climatic factcrs u'hich are considered vu,hen seiecting crops and
varieties: Rainfall; Temperature, Altitude and Humidity
tuVays il'lwhich c!imatic factors affect choice of crops and varieties for growlng
o Farmers in high altitude ai"eas like Thyoio, Mulanje, Vlphya, Misuku, l,,lyika receive high rainfaiI and
experience low tenrperatures hence they should select crcps anci varieties rvhich require these
r conditisns lil<e tea, coffee, bananas, rubber and also crop varieties as shcrs,n in tables 28 and 29 on
Aa
pdBc
^^-^ +).

Page 42 of 56 ! Compiied by: trr4r's. tr4.C. Kayembe | 0 995 3EG 3E8

 Ta::e 2B btlc,', s1c.'"s::-:e rai:e r'3:''-:'3s
ecoiogical aieas'
G Farmers in lovu aiiit'J:e ar€as like in that are suited to differe'rt
f riahr r-

ani sal Zcne =

lorter sl^,lre receii'e 'l't'rai:-'l:il
SC 513
erperience high temperatures so th'y Lo$,altitucie
ic medium altiiucie DK 8033, SC 4C3
should seiect crops and i'ai'ieties that Lcrr,,
Pannar 57, Dl( 8073
suit these conditior:s itke cotton, t'4edium altitude SC 533, Pann"i' ;7, DK 8353,
High altiiude
sorghum millet for high producticn'
SC 709, SC7L7,SC727
a Farmers in meCium aititude areas like
Mchinji, Lilongrve, Kasungu, Zonrba and Table 29 shor';s some groundnut varieties that
Chiladzulu receive moderate rainfall and
are suited to different ecological 3i'eas'
experience moderate temperatures sc they Eco I Zone Variety
should select crops and varieties that suit Lorv altitude Ma lirn ba, Ii/tanlPi ntar,
these conditions lil<e rnaize, gi'oundnuts, Kakoma
tobacco for high Production. Loiry to mediunr altitude Chitaia
!vtELturil or!lLuuc
b) Soii factors: The soii iactors that ii^rfiu:;ca
h altitude Chalimbana
crop grcwth are soil te)iture, soiltype and
capacity, root penetration, aeration and
soil structure. These soil factors determine \ryater holding
'

activities of microoi'ganisms.
varieties ior crop grorving
ways in which soil factors influence the cholce of crcps anci
o Farmers can choose root crops if their fielcis contain sancy soil which are loose for easy root
expansion.
c Farmers whose fieicis i:ave heavy iextu:"ed soiis like ciay scil ivith high \,'3ter holcing capacity can
choose rice since this crop can grow in flooded sciis'
r Farmers whose fields have saline soils shoulc seiect sait tolerant crops like cofton, spi;rach, sugar
beets since they car: vrithstand sait conCiticns in the fieid'

9.3 Selecting geod seed fcr planting

l{hat are the quatities of a good seed?
o Large and p[unlp: A lai'ge and piurnp seec has encugh fooc resei'ves to supp'lt seec germir'aticn'
e whole/ not broken/ not camaged/ not rotten: A damaged seed is likely that its embri'5 is danraged
too hence can fail to gernrinate'
o Viable: The seed shoi;id be viabie sc that il can gei'minate r'';hen planteC' graciing'
c pure to type: lt should not contain any fo;'eign seecl (not mixed) to eliminate the function of
e High germination percentage: ln orcer to achieve the ciesired plant poOulation'
Exptain one way in which selection of a gocd seed
for ptranting is important'
e To malle sure that the seed is viabie hence achieving a higher
gerniination percentage'

Experirnent 9.1: Germinatioil test

A.im:Tofincoutthegei.minaticnpercentageofri^'aizeseed.
Apparatus: A plastic bottle, Seeds, Coiton \r"ool, tr"ater
Procedure:
1. Place cotton v"ool inside the botlie'
Z. Fiace seeds on the ccttcrn trrccl.
3. fr4oisten the cotton rrycol'
4. Leave the bottle open i'3 alioi'v air in'
5. 0bsei".re afier 7 d:i's'
5. Co'..::t lne i'l.inrbe: ol seeis 3ei'rr;ra''ei' h'unber cf seecs germlnofed )<1Cc
7 " Caiculate tire gernrinaticn percentage
as fciiov"s i':';:n'iber Oi seeis i-riG?ii3a

lage 43 cf 55 ; Conipiled by: ['{i-s' l''i'C t(a.ve n^:e i u i:r :b: )'5
Experledle$ts
Some seeds rvill germinate rryhile cthers will not.
N/B The seed should be recommended for planting if the germination percentage is 90% or over.
Example: if the farmer planted 400seeds and 320 seeds gerrninated. Calculate germination percentage
Nunber of seeds germtnated x 100 320 seeds x 100
Number of seeds planted 400 seeds
= BAoh

What is the importance of carrying out gerrnination test?

o To make sure that the seed is viable and has high germination percentage in order to achieve
maximum plant population when planted.

9.4 Planting maize and groundnuts

What are the steps for planting maize and groundnuts?
i) Time of planting. iv) Calculating nr.rmber of seeds per given area.
ii) tu{easuring spacing between planting stations. v} Planting seeds at a coi'rect oepth.
iii) Marking out planting station. '.,i) Calculating germination percentage.
9.4.1Time of planting
Maize and groundnuts should be planted with the first good soaking rains.
Explain a!'ry two ways in which early planting is irnportant.
r The plants make full use of rains in the growing season.
o Plant roots get established early and absorb soil nutrients before they are leached.
o Crops mature before some late pests and diseases can attack them in the growing season.
o There is less competition between weeds and the plants for food because plants get established
early and form a canopy to suppress weed growth.
9.4.2 Measuring spacing between planting stations
Use of a tape measure to measL,lre out the distance betv',een planting station.

Vdhat is the recornmended spacing for rnaize?

o (For local maize variety)90cm apart foi'3 seeds,60cm for 2 seeds and 30cm for 1seed.
o (For hybriC variety) 75cm apart for 3, 45cm for 2 seeds and 25 cm for 1 seed.
What is the recommended spacing for groundnuts?
r Recommended spacing groundnuts clepends on the growth habit of the vai'iety. Groundnuts with
bunch type growth habit like t\4alimba require spacing of 10cm because plants need smallspace sirTce
the stems grow erect whiie thcse wlth a runner type grcwth habit like Chalimbana, Chitembana, RG1,
manipinter, mawanga, iCGMs 42 requii'e spacing of 15 cm because their stems grow laterall,yr
(sicleways) so they need large space.

Expiain three ways in which rneasuring spacing betrrueen planting station is irnportant.
e To ensure that spacing is accurate in order to achieve recommended plant pooulation for high
production.
. To ensure that plants have enough space to avoiC cci'npetition for resources.
r To enable plants, utilise resources efficiently since space is not wasted.

9.4.3 Marking out planting station

Pianting stations are small pits rvhere seeds are planted. After measuring spacing between planting
stations, sn'lall pits are dug using a hoe, and marked with a stick before the onset of rains. Manure is appiied
on the marked stations.
Explain one way in which rnarking out planting stations is important.
. For easy identification of the planting station during planting.
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9,4.4 Calculating nr,.rmber of seeds per given area
gil'eir ai'ea
The foilorrying for-mula is used when caiculating the number of seeds required oer
Gtt-en arecL x iiutt'.ber of seeds per statta?L
statian sPecing x rtdge sPaciitg
Example: Caiculate number of seecls required on t hectare rryhen 3 seeis are to be planted per station
spaceci at 90cm apart and on riclges spaceci at 90cnr apart'
100-09mx! j;eeds
Nurnber of seeds= 0.gmx0.9m = 37037 seeds

Explain one $rray in vuhich calculatlon of the nurr-rber of seeds required

per given area Es important'
o lt helps to achieve a desii'ed plant population per area for maximum production'

9.4.5 Flanting seeds at a correct depth

rhe.recommende.d o:l,l?:"i:lir1::1j::'""1':::::".1:1i1":,:::.::T rv it is 7 5cm to 10cm deep
Lr\Prcirr r'-.''-'- o

i For easy germination since if seecis are planteci verr,r

gggp the storecj food in the seeci is comp!eted

before the seeciling emerge

9.4.6 Calculating gerrnination percentage

Germination percentage is the pi'opor"tion of seeds plante'd th at have geri'ninated.
germination percentage
Example: A farmer planted 10000 seeds and 9950 seeds germrinated. Calculate
Number of seed-s germinafedxl00 9950 seedsx 100
^t
= >).59/c
Germination oerceniage N u?nbe'r c f seeds Plc.nted 10000 seeds

Explain one way in which calculation of germination percentage is important'

To find out if the germination percentage is low so that the farmer can start filling
the gaps (supplying)'
supplying shc'i;ld be
l,l/B The i-eccmmended gei-mination pei'centage is 909'o and ovei'. lf it is iess than 909'o
dcne vrithin 7-10 after seecllings ernerge'

suppiying: This means filling of gaps (places v!,hei'e seeds did not germlnate) in the
field.
Explain the importance of supplying in crop production'
e To ensure maximum plant popuiation for high crop producticn'
r To ensure that lancl and other environmentai resources (itater, nutrients and air) are fully utilised
during the growing season'
what happens when supplying is cjone later than 7-i0 ciays after see ciling ernerge?
The new seedlings niay not be able tc catch up r|riith the eai-lie:'
.*a "'' ,
seedlings anc this results in uneven growth. The shcrter plants v"ill
Leaf
not receive enough sunlight for photosi,nthesis since the.v are shaciec i i t1..,-.

i\-
by older plants. ,/
!,'
\.
9.5 \t/eed control in Maize and groundnuts :-l

\Meeds are univanted plants in the fieid.

*+*n.-Ff

List exarnples of weeds. Roots

Black Jack, \ffitch u'eed, pig r,veeci, guinea grass

g.5.1 The irnportance of weed control in crop production Figure 20: Diagram of a weed

Explain the importance of weed control in crop proCuction'

r ro pre'ei^rt csmpeti.Lion for i'esources inu.irie nts, u'a'Ler, iighl) rvilh cuiiii'ated crops hence high yieicls
o To eliminate irritating weeds such as stinging nettle that irritate farmers reducing labour output'
r To p!.e\.rent blockage of irrigation channels by aquatic tn'eeds.

Page 45 of 56 I Cor*otied by: tr4rs. i.4.C' Kaverribe i 0 995 385 388

 . To remove weeds such as witch weed which produce chemical compounds that suppress or inhibit
germination of seeds.
r To conti'ol pests and diseases iryhich may be harboured by some weeds since they act as an aiternate
host for those pests.
r Weeds lower quality of the produce through contamination e.g., cotton lint can be contarninated with
weed seeds this makes grading difficult and expensive.
o To remove poisonous weeds like thorn apple in order to avoid the risk of poisoning livestock.
9.5.2 Methods of weed control in Maize and groundnuts
i) Physicalweedcontrol
This involves uprooting weeds by hands. This method is recommended in groundnuts after flov'iering stage
to avcid disturbing the pegs of the groundnuts.
Table 30:Advanta es and disadvan sof ical weed control
Advantaees Disadvantaees
i) lt is cheap since it does not need i) lt is labour demanciing
investing in farm tools. ii) lt is slow
ii) lt does not need specific skill. iii) May damage crop roots if weeds are uprooted when they are
full rown and their roots have intertwined with crop roots
ii) Mechanicalweed control
It involves use of mechanical devices to control weeds in the field such as hoes, cultivators. Exarnples of
mechanicalweed controlin maize and groundnut fielcls are: Light hoeing, banking and cultivating.
What is the difference between light hoeing and banking as mechanicatweed control?
o ln light hoeing weeds are scraped (hoed out) using hoes and exposed to the sun while banking vreeds
are scraped using hoes and buried within the ridge" This also helps to rebuild the ridge.
N/B Light hoeing and banking in groundnuts shouiC be done before the crop ilowers to prevent damaging
the pegs of the groundnuts but in rnaize can be done at any time.

Table 31: Advantage of mechanical rareed control

Advantages Disadvantages
i) It is faster than physical weed control. i) lt is expensive tc buy rnechanicaldevices.
ii) lt is less tiring than physical weed ii) It might damage the crop roots.
control. iii) May not able to remove weeds on planting station
iv) It disturbs soil structure resulti into soil erosion
iii) Chemical weed control
It involr,,es use of herbicicies to kill weeds or prevent them from germinating e.g Bromacil, Round- uo
Classification of herbicides sed on time of acolication
1. Pre-planting herbicides: these are applied before planting crop seeds. e.g., methyl bromide
2. Fre-emergency herbicides: these are applied after planting but before seeds germinate. e.g., bullet
3. Post emergency herbicides: these are appiied after the crop gernrinates e.g., Simazine, round-up
Classification of herbicides based on selectivitv
1. Selective herbicides: These are herbicides that kill plants of a particular group rryithout harming other
plants in the mixed population for example; Dalapon kills only monocots, so this herbicide should not
be applied in maizefield since maize is a monocot (grassfamily)hence can be destroyed togetherrvith
narrow leaved weeds (grass family). "2,4-D dichloroacetic kills only dicots with broad leaved weeds.
2. Non selective herbicide: These herbicides kill all types of weeds (both narrow and broad) e.g. Paraquat.
Classification of herbi based on mode of action
1. Soil sterilants: These are applied to the soil to prevent germination and growth of v.reeds e.g. nrethyl
brornine, Bromacil, Duron etc.

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 plant through rccts or teaves and
7. Systemic (Translocated) herbicides: They are absorbed by the
piant tissues. e.g. Dalapon'
translocate to ail other parts through vascular systeiTl destroying
n'ith them e'g' paraquat, propanyl'
3. Ccntact herbicicies: They kiiiweeci r,.,hen they are in dii'ect contact

Tabie 32: Advan e and disadvanta es of chemical weed control

Advarita r Disadvan

i) lt is fast hence enables farmers to cultivate large land i) it is expensive.

ii) Chemicals are toxic to people and livestock'
ii) lt is less labour demanding.
ii) Very effectir,,e way of controlling ureeds in closely iii) lt requires skills in handling and applicaticn
Chemicals can ilute environment.
sp aced crops.

iv) Cultural weed control

help to suppress weed grovrth'
This involves use of normal husbandry practices which
o Early planting: Crcps get estabiishecj and form a cancpy before weecs germinate and suppress rveed
-; ^'.'^!i^t-'+
s,-u'.1 . -! y,."-.,'','-.; ll-.:"^' l.:: :-::::'''
r Deep tillage: This buries weeds to kill them or prevent them from germinating before crops are
esta biished.
weeds thus preventing them from
o Correct plant spacing: Helps crops to form a canopy and shade
receiving light.
of theii- host hence the weed dies'
. Crop rotatio,n: This controls pai-asitic Vv'eeds by depi'iving thern
light'
o Mulching: This covers the soil hence preventing weeds from receiving
preventing weeds from receiving light'
o Mixed Cropping: This ensunes adequate soil cover hence
r Flooding in rice fields: This kiil ncn aquatic iryeeds by suffocation'
growth than n'eeds which hetp to suppress weed
o correct fertitiser application: This ensures faster plant
grorvth.

Table 33: Advanta es anC disadr,,anta es of cultural vveed

controi
Disadvantage
Advanta )-
method cioes not control all liin u5
since they do not requii-e extra effoi-t as they i)This
i)Very cheap
use practices that are cornm*nly used on the farm
ci r,;eeCs

ii)r are ve ea methods to use

v)Legislative rveed control
The following lavus are usec: Quarantine'
This involves passing !aws to control weeds anc their spreac.
inspection measures and notification ordei" place
goocs that rnay contain weed seeds are kept in enclosed
Quarantine: This law ensures that suspicious
are free froi'n rn"eeds or rveeci seeds'
in order to observe them for a perioc to check that they
points like harboui"s and alrpoi-ts to ensui'e that gocds
rnspection measures: This is done at the enti-.y
suspicious goods are put uncier quarantine'
entei-ing the country do not cai'ry rveed seeds. Any
be reported immecliately to the
order: This lavu requii'es that cccurrence of serious weeds
Notification
appr-opriate authorities for proper contrcl'
rveed control
Table 34: Advantage s and disadvantages of le lative
Disadvantages
i) Prevents strange weeds from being i) lt is difficult to enforce.
introCuced into the countrY. ii) lt is not effectirre since smr:ggling of goods is
ii) it is free to the fai-mer since the farrner cornmon.
contributes th nci'mai taxes ilt It covers a few sPecified it eeCs

0 995 385 388

?age 47 of 55 | Complied by: l(lrs' l'04'C' l(ayernbe I
 through rocts or leaves and
2. Systemic (Translocated) herbicides: They are absorbed by the Flant
piant tissues. e.g' Dalapon'
translocate to all other parts through vascular system aestroying
n'ith them e'g' paraquat, propanyl'
3. Contact herbicicies: Tney kiilweecj rryhen they are in dii-ect contact

Table 32: Advantage and di sadvanta of chemical weed control

ES

Advanta Disadvantages
i) lt is fast hence enables farmers to cu Itivate large land
i) it is expensive.
ii) lt is less labour demanding. ii) Chemicals are toxic to people and livestock'
skills in handling and applicaticn
ii) Very effective way of controlling n'eeds in ciosely iii) It requires
s aced cro
iv)Chem icals can po ilute environment.

iv) Cultural weed control

help to suppress weed growth'
This involves use of nornnal husbandry practices which
. Early planting: crops get estabiisheci and form a canopy before weecs germinate anci suppress rveed
5,-u*.1 , L,
:-::::" -; ^'.'-!i^r-'+
n,-,-..:,"; li.:"^, l.::
from gerrninating before crops are
. Deep tillage: This buries weeds to kill them or prevent them
estabiished.
weeds thus preventing them from
e correct plant spacing: Helps crops to form a canopy and shade
receiving light.
cf their host hence the weed dies'
r Crop rotation: This conti-ols parasitic vveeds by depi-ii,ing them
receiving light'
. Mulching: This covers the soil hence preventing weeds from
e pr"eventing weeds from receiving light'
Mixed Cropping: This ensures adequate soil cover hence
r Flooding in rlce fields: This kiil ncn aquatic weeds by suffocation.
growth than \'l"'eeds which help to suppress weed
r Correct fertltiser application: This ensures faster plant
growth.

Table 33: Advantag es and disadr,,anta es of cultural weed controi

Disadvan
Advanta
method cioes not control a ll hinds
since they do not require extra effort as theY i)This
i)Very cheap
cf rn;eeds.
use practices that are commcnly used on the farm
TI hey a r) VE ea sy meth od S to use

v)Legislative rveed control

The follcwing lav"s are usec: Quarantine'
This involves passing laws to control weeds anc their spi"eac'
inspection measures and notification order' place
goocs that may contain weed seeds are kept in enclosed
euarantine: This raw ensures that suspicious
are free from Vreeds or rveed seeds'
in order to observe them for a period to check that they
points li[<e harboui's and aii'po.ts io ensui"e that goods
inspection measui.es: This is done at the enti"y
suspicious goods are put uncier quarantine'
entei-ing the country do not cai'ry rveed seeds. Any
This law requii-es that occu.rence cf serious v(eeds be
repcrted imnreciiately to the
Notification order:
a ppr-opriate authorities for
pro per" control'

Tabie 34: Adva s and disadva sof islative n'eed control

Adva Disadva
i) Prevents strange weecis from being i) It is difficuit to enforce.
introciuced into the ccuntrY. il ) lt is not effectir,'e since smuggling of gooCs is

ii) it is free tc the far-mer since the fari"irer coi-nmon

ilrl It covers a few weeds
contributes through noi"mal taxes

?age 47 of 65 i Cornplied by: Ii{i-s' tr4 C' l(a1'embe | 0 995 385 388
9.6 Fertiliser application
9.6.1 Types of fertilisers recornrnended to maize:
a) Nitrogenous fertilisers: Examples: CAN, Urea, 23:21:0+4S
b) Phosphatic fertiiisers: Example: DSP (Double Super Phosphate)
Give a reason why applicat!on of nitrogenous fertilisers in groundnuts is not necessary.
- Groundnuts are legumes hence they fix nitrogen with the help of rhizobiunr bacteria found in their
root nodules.

9.6.2 Methods of applying Fertiliser in maize garden

a) Dollop/ Drillingl hole placement method: This is direct placement ':.
of fertiliser in the hole during planting. 1

Procedure
1 Make planting holes
: -\tJP'y r..-Mr.rrele -'t.--
f l- t't'--

3 Mix the fertiliser with soil. Figure 21 Hole placement

4 Plant seed.
b) Side dressine: This is placement of fertiliser in two holes u,hich
are made beside the plant.
Procedure
o N4ake two holes on both sides of the plant 7.5cm - 10cm away f rom
the plant and 7.5-10cm deep.
. Apply recommended amount of fertiliser.
o Cover it with soil.
c) Broadcastins method: This is random spreading of fertilisers in the field. Figure 22 Side dressing
It is fast but wasteful.
d) Foliar method:The fertiiiser is a pplied in solution form by spraying it over the plants to be absorbed
through the leaf surface
e) lrrisation methoci: The fertiliser is mixed with water and is a pplieC in the field through drip
irrigation
rl lniection intq ihqSSjf Fertiliser is a pplied in liquid fcrm and is injected into the scii uncier pressure
It is used in green houses

9.6.3 Tirne of fertiliser application

a) Plantins time Application of fertiliser during planting is knovun as basal dressing. Phosphatic
fertilisers are applied during pianting e.g., Double Super phosphate fertiliser

Give two reasons why phosphatic fertilisers are applied during p[anting time.
o Phosphorus is not highly soluble in water hence Iess prone to leaching vvhich mostly occurs at
planting time when rainfall is heavy.
e Phosphorus helps in root establishment hence needed during planting time '"t'hen crops are not
yet established.
b) At knee hieh {45 cm):Application of fertiliserrryhen maize isr,,-ellestablisheC i.e. at knee high
(45cm high) is knorvn as top dressing. Examples of fertilisers that can applied as top dressing are
nitrogenous and potassic fertilisers.
6ive a reason why nitrogenous and potassic fertilisers ane applied as top dressing.
- These fertilisers are more soluble in water hence are applied when rainfall is not much later in
the season to prevent excessive leaching. N/8. This time plants are already established.

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9.6.4 Calculating rates of fertiliser
it is important to calculate rate of fertiiiser in order to apply recornmended amount of nutrients to the soil
for high production.
What factors should be considered when calculating rates of fertiliser?
o Percentage of the nutrient supplied by the fertiliser'
. Amcunt of nutrients requireC per unit area of lanC. (level of fertiiity of the soii)
. Specific nutrient required by the crop.
Examples:
i. A farmer appiied 500Kg Urea. Caiculate ariount of niti-ogen applied in the soii. i'i/B Ui-ea contains
46.0/o nitrogen.
46x 500
Amount of nitrogen= 100
= 230K8 Nitrogen
A plot of maize requires 210Kg Nitrogen. Calculate amount of Sulphate of Ammonia
fertiliser to be
2
^.^.^li^J ^,^ +l^- -l^+ /D c,rl-h1+o nf n nmnni: rnnl-:inq ?1ol^ \litroocn
.. r- t- ^l
27 x x ks Amount of Sulphate of Ammonia to be applied= 1,000K9
100
= Zl}k.q -) x = 1,00OKg = .'.

9.7 Pest and disease control

diseases and viral
9.7.1 The major diseases of maize and groundnuts are: Fungal diseases, Bacterial
diseases. The table below shov-,s diseases that attack rnaize, causative agent, symptoms and
control
measures.

Table 35: Diseases of maize and undnuts

Disease Causative Symptorn Control

Head Fungus Black spores on the cobs and PIant resistant varieties; use certified
smut tassels. seecis; CroP rotatioi'l; ro6,ueing
(uprooting infected plants); anC Treating
seeds with fu cides.
Common Fungus Black spores on the rru'hole Plant resistant varieties; use certified
smut plant (cobs, tassels, leatres, seecis; Crop rciation; and r-ogueing.
stem
Maize rust Fu ngus Red brolvn povuder on leaves Plant resistant varieties; Cr"op rotation;
anti early; Use certified seeds
Cob rot Fungus i)White fungal moulds Plant resistant varieties; Use certified
covering the cob or individual seeds; Crop rotation; Timely harvesting.
or: in q
ii) Grains on the cobs become
rotte n.
Leaf blight Fungus Long elliptical brourn (lesicns) Plant resistant varieties; early planting
(Northern dead spots on the leaves' rhe
leaf blight) lesians first appear an lawer leoves
olso cailed ond increase in size and number.
Tarcicum

Grey leaf Fungus Scotched leaves (chiwau) Plant resistant varieties; Crop rotation;
spot Rogueing and burning off infecteci
The disease plants; Spray appropriate fungicicles;
appear ot weed contrcl
tosseling

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 Downy Fu ngus i) Yellcwish strips ail over rhe Plant resistant varieiies, Rogueing and
h4ilderv older leaves . iN/E the strlps are burning off (uprooting) infected plants;
difrerent lrarn thcse sf moize stresk Spray appropriate fungicides.
virus diseose becsuse they Gre nat
Iimited to the parollel veins af the
moize leof.)
ii) Stunted gro"vth
iii) Deformed tasse!s
iv)The crop proCuces a lot of
branches
Maize Virus i) Yellow parallel lines on the Plant resistant varieties; rogueing; Use
stre a k cailed leaves with long strips of green certified seeds; crop rotation; Planting
maize patches. early; and field hygiene.
streak. lhe ii) Cobs are half filled or
CUnLaiar IlL,5tre'J5.
trsnsmitted iii) Stunted grorr,'rth
by leaf

Stalk rot Bacteria i) Discolouration of the leaves Deep p{oughing; avoid overhead
and sheath. irrigation
ii) Decomposition of the stalk
starting from the nodes.

Table 36: Common diseases that attack undnuts, causative a m and control rneasu!'es.
Disease Causative Syrnptoms Control
agent
Rosette Virus. It is i)Chlor-osis PIant resistant r;arieties such
transmitted ii) StunteC growth as RG1; correct spacing to
by aphids. iii) Tiny and yeliow curled control aphids; Early
i^^.,^^ planting; Uproot and bui-n all
infected plants; Spray
Dimethoate to conti"ol
aphids.
Early leaf spot. Fungus i) Redcjish brovun spots Spray plants with Daconil or
(This attocks (lessons) surrounded by a Sulphur dust; use resistant
graundnuts during its yelloi,v circle or band. varieties; Crop rotation; early
early stages) ii) Leaves become chlorotic planting; Uproot all infected
and Iater fall. lants
Late leaf spot. (rh,s Fungus i) Lesscns (Black spots) but Spray plants v.rith daconil or
attscks Eroundnuts withcut a yeliow band. Sulphur dust; use resistant
during its later stages va rieties.
from flowering to
msturity stsges.)
Bacterialvuilt Bacteria i) Sudden v.rilting of stem anC Piant resistant varieties; Use
leaves in young plants. certified seeds; Crop
ii) Drying branches curl. rotation.

9.7.2 Describe losses caused by diseases

o Diseases reduce crop production by reducing photosynthetic area in plants as most leaves lose their
green colour or are covered vilith black substance or they contain dead spots. Some plants die and
are uprooted thus reducing plant population in the field hence low crop production.

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 grains as in cob rot disease this reduces market
. Loss ofquality of crop yields for example rotting of
profit'
value of the produce thereby reducing farmer's
u,hat was invested in farming due to iow prociuction
. There are economic losses since a farmer
loses

asflowers,fruitsandseecisaredestroyed.Lossoffarm,sprofitsincediseasesincreasecostof
production as control measures are costly'
rThereisreciucecibiociiversitysincethechemicalsusedtoControldiseasesmaypollutethe
environment. --) ^ - r..^^,,c
oLossoflivessincesomediseasesmaybepoisonoustohumans/livestockifconsumede.g.fungus
causeaflatoxinsingroundnutsandalsoifrottenmaizeisconsumedincaseofcobrotdisease.
9.7.3 Disease control Practices
a) Cultural control Practices
practices that reduce multiplication or spread of diseases'
This involves use of norrnal husbandry
lCroprotation:Helpstocontrolhostspecificdiseasesbybreakingthelifecycleofdisease-causing
. -.-t-.-^- L^-^^ r+anc ifc m'rltinlir^atinn
for the vector/pest to
aphids since it creales unsuitable environment
. ;r.:;;;r;;;"*, *r'controls
its multiplication i.e-, close spacing rbduces
move from one plant to the other hence stopping
rosettediseasesinceaphidwhichtransmittheviruscannotmcveeasilyfromplanttoanother. of the
This provides unfavourable envii'onment for
the multiplication
o planting resistant varieties:
Pathogens.
oEarlyplanting:Thisensuresthatcropsarewellestablishmentanddevelopresistancebeforepests
and diseases build uP'
oApplyingrnanureandfertilisercorrectly:Thisensuresahealthandstrongcropsothatitcanresist
disease attack.
rUseofcleanplantingmaterials(diseasefree)suchascertifiedseeds:Thisavoidsspreading
healthy crop'
to the newly Jeveloped plants hence ensuring a
diseases
plants): to prevent spreading diseases to the rest of
. Rogueing (uprooting and destroying infected
p la nts.
o Removing volunteer plants: To prevent them
from providing food to pests and disease-causing
organisms of the Previous croP' to
o and pests by exposing the pathogens and pests
Deep tillage: This destroys soil borne diseases
kill them'
the surface where the sun or predators can
rDestroyingcropresiduesbyburyingorburningthem:Thiskillspestanddisease_causingorganlsms
to avoid sPreading to new Plants'
.Mixedcropping/lntercropping:ThisreducesthespreadofdiseasesbecausesomeCropsactaS
barriers to vectors'
rProperweeding:Thisensuresthatweedswhichharbourdiseasecausingorganismsareeradicated
to prevent spreading diseases to crops'
the land uncultivated
o practice fallowing: This helps to starve vectors of diseases to death by leaving
there will be no crop to provide them with
food'

Table 37: Advantages and Disadvanta of cultural disease control

Disadva
Advantages
It is slow
It does not Pollute the environme nt
ractices
It is chea SINC e it uses normal husban

b) Biological control Practices

Thisinvolvestheuseofnaturalenennies(predators,parasitesorpathogens)tocontrolvectorsofplant
i'osette disease'
to eat up aphicis which causes
diseases. For example, using lady bii'd beetle

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Kayembe | 0 995 385 388
 Tab[e 38: Advantages and Disadvan tages of bio I disease ccntrol
Advantages Disadvantage
i) It does not pollute the i) lt requires expertise and thorough research on the ecosystem
environment and the behaviour of both the vector and the controlling agent.
iil) Less labour demanding

c) Chemical control practices:

This involves use of chemicals to kill pathogens or disease vectors e.g. spraying Daconil to control leaf spot
in groundnuts.

Table 39: Advantages and Disadvan of chemical disease control

Adva Disadvan
i) lt produces results quickly" i) Some vectors and disease-causing organisms develop
(Pathogens are killed instantlv.) resistance hencp makinp tho rhorniral< nnt offantivo
ii) lt is fast hence not Iabour ii) It is expensive.
demanding. iii) Chemicals can be toxic to people.
iv) lt requires skills in handling and application.
Poll utes the environ ment

d) Legislative procedures
This involves the use of laws passed by parliament that prohibit introduction or spread of crop diseases in
the country.

Examples of these laws are as follows:

i) Quarantine: This is a period of isolation and observation of imported products in sealed
compartments long enough for any disease symptom to appear so that if any disease appear the
products are destroyed to avoid spreading.
ii) Notification order: It is the law that demands people to report occurrence of any serious disease
and pest outbreak to authorities for proper control. This ensures that serious pests and diseases
are properly identified and controlled before they cause serious damage. Examples of notifiable
pests are army worms and locusts which are very disruptive.
iii) Prohibition: The Law that forbid transportation of crop produce from infected to uninfected area
to avoid spreading of diseases.
iv) Closedseason:ltisalawthatdemandsfarmersnottogrowaparticularcropinanareainorderto
starve out vectors so that they die during the absence of that particular crop"

Table 4O: Advantages and Disadva s of Legislative disease control

Advantages Disadvantages
i) Prevents strange weeds from being i) It is difficult to enforce.
introduced into the country. ii) lt is not effective since smuggling of goods
ii) lt is free to the farmer since the farmer is common.
contributes through normal taxes. ii) lt covers a few specified weeds.

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 groundnuts
9.7.4 Maior pests of maize and
Whatarethetwomaingroupsofcroppest?Thesearefielcipestsandstoragepests -.1-1-
\- i o l
\ ,.--.
\ '+-
LA.;z:<"-
]--4qr_,r' .. ,]
1 *r# &."r- -
Jy'

Fig 22. 5

. ,:A\.1\"-
t -/a-,
'--@ffitr--"*
-"\
I
' -*- 1.:-;LY
Fig 22. 6 Fi.q 22.
., . i"s---
.r ,. Fig 22. lC
.'

#
-.-..-.:.'^^..'l .
i,. i : *- .'.tl]f7."
tig 22. i - ,+-- t 1! :_ ,,.t
Jj t-!::-
-ssi-r4("/-,
>Yal- t <.1
flq t:. )!
\:E \-/

rig 22. 13

caused the est and contro I measures.

undnuts, da
Table 41: Pest of maize and caused Control
Crop
Pest Du sting m atze with d ipterex
Maize i) Make holes across the leaf
Stalk borer (field pest) ii) Remove an d d estroy a
reducing PhotosYnthetic area
(Fig z2.a) crop residues
ii) Make hotes through the
stem disturbing translocation
of water and mineral salts
from the roots to the leaves with carbaryl
SpraY the croP
Feeds on newlY develcPed
Army worm. (field Pest:) lt
Maize
Groundnuts leaves leaving onlY the stem
is a notifiable Pest. (Fig
and the midribs of the leaves'
22.s)
l) SpraYing carbaryl
Maize Feeds on leaves, soft stems
GrasshoPPer s" These a re ii) Picking and crushing them
and shoots- (Locusts can finish
field Pests, Most common a large field in a daY)'
gra sshoP P e rs ore el eg a nt
grosshoPPer, green
grasshoPPer and locust' A
locust is a notifioble Pest'
7?.-6 using i) nppty Pesticides like Astellic,
Maize i) Bores into the grain bY
Weevils. lt both a field
is Super guard dust'
their curved snouts called
and storage Pest' (Fig 22' ii) ProPer drying of the grarns
rostrum and eat the grain'
7l to make the testa hard'
ii) Female laY eggs inside the
ill Tim harvesti
in.
i) Close season
Maize i) Suck Plant juice
Leaf hoPPer virus' ii) SpraY approPriate
ii) Transmit maize streak
It is a field Pest- (Fig 22'8) chernicals
the Hand Picking; SPraY carbaryl
Maize i) Feeds on green Pa i-ts of
Ear worms (field pests)
maize Plant
They ore also called
coterPillars. TheY are
while Yaung and
385 388
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by: lVlrs' M'C' Kayem be I 0 995
 when fully grown they ii) fhey cut maize seedlings at
turn velvet with yellow the base immediately after
strips. They curl when germination.
disturbed.
Rodents (Mice ond rats) Maize Eat maize grains and ground Use of natural enemies e.g.,
Mice ore field pests while Groundnuts nuts in storage and also sown cats; Trapping them; Using rat
rqts ore storoge pesfs. (Fig seeds. guards; Keeping the storage
22.e)
surrounding clean.

Monkeys (Field pests) Maize Eat green maize cobs before Shooting them; Scaring them
they mature and sown
ndnut seeds
Wild pigl Warthog Maize Eat green maize I Hunting them; Digging ditches
(Field pest)
around the field; Fencing the
garden.
l:roo orrin ha.o. l-+^---^
Lor vo rcuur uil rridr4E Lrrlr) | )pray appropflatg cngmicals,
pest) lt is larger than o even with husks in it.
weevil. F 22'.r0)
Termites (both field pest Maize i) Cut down plants causing Avoid banking in the dry
ond storage) {Fig22.3l Groundnuts them to fall completely to the weather;
ground. Use recommended chem icals;
ii) Eat up the roots and stem Timely harvesting;
iii) Eat up the pods in
undnut ants.
Aphid (field pest) (Fig Groundnuts i) Suck plant juice(sap) Correct spacing; Spraying
22.71) ii) Transmit rosette virus Dimethoate; Use of natural
enemies like lady bird beetle
to eat u the hid
Beetles (field pest) (Fig Groundnuts Eat seeds in storage Spray appropriate chemicals
22.L2)
White grub. lt has a C- Groundnuts Chew roots and pods. Deep ploughing; Early planting
shape. (field pest) (Fig
Seed treatment; Use
22.1)
appropriate chemical.

Leaf miner (field pest) Groundnuts Lay eggs on the underside of Crop rotation; Field hygiene;
the leaflets. Use of trap cr S
Thrips (field pest) Groundnuts Sack sap Spray appropriate chemicals
These are tiny insects thot
feed in the unfolded
leaves.
Red hairy caterpillars (field Groundn uts Eat leaves leaving the main Deep ploughing; Early
pest) (Fig 22.2) stem only planting, Crop rotation; Field
hr,rgiene; Use of trap crops.

Nematodes eld pests) Groundnuts Attack roots Cro rotation

Millipedes - field pests (Fig Groundnuts Eat up the pods Covering expcsed pocis.
22.L3)

9.7.5 Crop losses caused by pests

i) Loss in quantity of crop ylelds because of the following reasons:
a) They eat up Ieaves there by reducing photosynthetic area.
b) They eat up stems there by ciisturbing translocation of food and water in plants.
c) They eat up roots there by disturbing absorption of nutrients.
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 d) They suck sap depriving the plant of its food and causes wilting'
and they consume fruits
e) They feed on flowers there by interfering rvith pollination and fertilisation
like groundnut Pods, maize grains'
f)Theydestroygrowingpoints(bucisandshoots)hencestuntedgrowth.
g)Somepestsproducetoxicsubstanceswhichcausedeathtothewholeplant.
h)TheyaCtaSVectorswhichtransmitdiseaseslikeaphidstransmitrosettevirus.
i) Pierce plant parts encouraging secondary infection'
ii) quality of crop yields because of the following:
Loss in
a) They contaminate the produce through their excreta and eggs'
ul ft,ey bore the grains like weevils making the grains undesirable.
iii) Loss of economy because of the following facts: as flowers, fruits and
a. The farmer loses what was invested in farming due to low production
seeds are destroYed'
Loss of farm,s profit since pest control measures
are costly and increases cost of production'
b.
c. to low production of cash crops'
Loss of forex due
pests may pollute the environment'
iv) Loss of biodiversity since the chemicals used to control
food procucts and they are poisonous
v) Loss of lives: The chemicals used in controlling pests contaminate
properly handled'
to human beings and livestock and may cause death if not

9.7.5 Pest control Practices

i) Cultural Pest control
This invorves use of husbandry practices to manipulate
environment, making it unfavourabre for sun'rival of
pest. Examples of cultural pest control practices are as foilows:
o crop rotation: Helps to control pests by breaking their life cycle hence stops its multiplication' from
r proper spacing: This controls pests by creating unsuitable environment for the pest to rnove
oneplanttotheotherhencestoppingitsmuitiplicationi'e.closespacingcontrolsaphids.
muitiplication
o planting resistant varieties: provides unfavourable environment for the survival and
of Pests.
. and deveiop resistance before pests build
Early planting: Ensures that crops are well estabiished
up.
health and strong crop which can resist pest
o Applying manure/fertiliser correctly: lt ensures a
attack.
o Removing volunteer plants: To prevent them
from providing fooci to pests of the previous crop
hence prevents them from multiplying'
them to the surface where the sun or
o Deep tillage/ ploughing: This destroys pests by exposing
predatorscankillthem'Deeptillagedestroyspestsbyburyingthemintothesoil'
o Destroying crop residues by burylng or burning
them: This kills pest to avoid spreading to new
plants.
alternate host for Crop pests'
o Weed early: to remove weeds since they act as an
c from the field by destroying crop residues'
Field hygiene: To ensure that pests are removed
which can resist pest damage'
o correct fertiiiser application: To ensure a healthy crop
pests'
r Timely harvesting: To enabie crop plants escape
. seeds: This helps in establishing pest free crops'
Use of clean pla.ting materiats or certified
est control methods
Table 42: Advantages and Disadvantages of cultural
Disadvantage
Advantages
It is slow
i) It do S n ot po lt ute the e n ronm nt
o

It S C hea S lnce it U S E) no m a hus ba n d ry p i'act C e S.

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 1i) Biological pest control
It involves use of living organisms which are predators, parasites cr pathogens of the pests. e.g., ladybird
beetle is used to control aphids, cats to control rats, chickens to control cotton strainers, crows to feed on
arrny worms.

Table 43: Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio cal pest control

Advantages Disadvantages
i) Saves labour. i) lt requires research forthe correct biologicalagents
ii) lt does not pollute environment ii) lt is slow.

iii) Chemical pest control

This is the use of chemicals to control pests. The chemicals are known as pesticides and they can be applied
in a number of ways such as Dusting, Spraying and fumigation.

Table 44: Advanta and Disadvan es of chemical pest control

AOVantages ursaovantages
i) Low labour i. Chemicals are expensive.
req u irement. ii. Some chemicals have long residual effects and cause soil pollution
ii) lt fast hence
is hence killing beneficial soil organisms and predator insects such as
suitable to large ladybird beetles.
fa rms. iii. lt requires skills in mixing and application.
iv. Regular pesticides use reduces the effectiveness of the chemicals as
some pests develop resistance.
v- Pollution of rivers and water resources are a threat to aquatic life.
vi. Other chemicals have side effects on hurnans and livestock through
body contact or through contaminated food since chemicals are
isonous
iv) Mechanical / physical pest control practices
lnvolves use of direct human effort or mechanical devices to remove/ destroy pests, making environment
unsuitable for them or provide a barrier to prevent pests from getting into contact with crops.
. lrrigation or Flooding: Overhead irrigation washed away pests from plant leaves while flooding
irrigation suifocates pests in the soil.
. Trapping: They are used to attract pests such as birds, mice and insects so that they can be collected
and destroyed more easily.
o Use of airtight storage facilities: This kill pests by preventing oxygen circulation.
o Heating: Very high temperatures kill pests e.g., burning maize stalks to kill stalk borer.
o Hand plcking: Pests and their eggs can be picked by hand and crushed.
r Creation of physical barriers: such as rat guards to prevent rats from crawling up into the grain
store, fences to keep off large animals, smearing sticky materials on tree trunks to prevent insects
from crawling up the trees.
c Frighteningoffpests: useofagun-fire,scarecrows(humanfigurelikeobjects),distresscalls(sound
of a captured pest or that of its predator is replayed from a loud speaker) to scare them.
o Proper drying: To ensure that the seed coat is hard enough to prevent being damaged by pests.
Table 45: Advantages and Disadva es of mechanical pest control
Advantage Disadvantages
Does not cause environmental pollution i) It reqLrires skills ii) lt is expensive
v) Legislative procedures
This is the use of laws and regulations that prevent dangerous pests from being imported into the country
e.g., Quarantine, Prohibition, closed season, notification order (see crop disease control)
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f

vi) lntegrated Pest management

practices for economic control of pests'
It is an approach that uses a range of pest control
pest management rnethod
The steps to be folioweci when using integrated
for effective control'
L. proper identification oi pest i'J- iearn he pest and host life cycle
2. Monitor environment for pest population' to control the pest) by
Establish action thresholci (a point at which
action must be taken
3.
consideringhowmanypestsarethere,aretheytoomuch?lfnotthenitisnotnecessarytotake
an action.
pest control'
4. Find out possible options available for the
pest control'
5. Choose an appropriate combination of
in controlling pests in crop fields'
Explain the importance of integrated pest management
oltiscosteffectivesinceanactionistakenonlywhenthepopulationofpestsisincreasingbeyond
thestandardizednumberofpeststhatcanbetoleratedbyplants.
the last resort'
- ll t: rnvirnnmont:l1r cafe since use Of chemiCal COntrOl methOd iS alwayS
oltiSeffectivesinceitusesacombinationofpestcontrolpractices.
9.8 Harvesting
crops:
9.8.1 Factors that determine time of harvesting
i)lntendeduseofthecrop:Thestageofharvestedmaizeandgroundnutsisdeterminedbytheform silking
in which the ci-op is needed. ror elxample;
Maize and groundnuts for silage are harvested at
andfloweringstagesrespectively.Greenmaizeforboilingorroastingisharr,estedwhenhusksare
fully dried (the whole plant turns brown)'
still green. vt-aize ior shelling is harvested when
periods to avoid rotting of grains'
ii) weather conditions: crops should be harvested during dry market demand is high this allows the
iii) Market demand: A crop can be harvested earrier when the
farmer to benefit from high market pt'ices'
pest attack like weevils and rodents'
iv) Pest and disease outbreak: Early harvesting prevent
9.8.2 Signs of readiness for harvesting crops
are readY for harvesting?
How do you know that maize and groundnut €rops
Si ns adi for sti for m Ii
a)
. Drooping (bending downwards ) of cobs. (depends on the maize variety)
. Browning of leaves, stems and husks'
in the Palms
a The grains produce a crisp sound whe n shaken
g groundn uts for she lline.
b) sien of read ess for h rvesti n
r Brown sPots inside the Pods
. Yellowing of most leaves'
9.8.3 CroP harvesting Procedures
Ha ng tn rnalze
i) Direct harvesting method
Procedure:
o Bend the maize stalk'
o Pick maize cobs from the standing stalks
Table 46: Advantage s and Disadva e5 of direct harvesting rnethod
Dis
nottho roughly done as some cobs can be left in the field not
It is a fast Har^vesting is
method. ha n ested

0 995 386 388

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 ii) Stooking method
Procedure:
1. Cut maize stalks at the base using a panga knife. 3. Wait for some weeks
2. Put maize stalks in stooks. (A stook is a standing heap of 4. Pick the cobs from the stalks in
maize stalks). stooks.

Table 47:Advanta es and Disadvantages of stooking method

Advantages Disadvantage
i) lt allows maize to dry fully. ii) lt helps to reduce termite damage iii) it makes lVlaize can be stolen
harvesting easy. iv) Ensures that all cobs are picked from the stalks. in stooks
Harvesting procedure in groundnuts
Procedure:
. Dig the plants from the sides of the ridge towards the centre.
a Ttrrn fha nl:nt< rrncido rlnrrrn ln 6vhn.6 *he pld: i1' th::,-': l:::l:,r,::;-
o Leave the plants in the inverted heaps to dry for 10 days.
o Pick the pods from the plants in the inverted (upside down)heaps.

Review questions
1. A farmer observed the following signs of a disease in groundnut plants:
. Reddish brown sports with a yellow band
.
Chlorosis
a) Name the disease that attacked groundnut plants.
A. Rosette B. Late leaf spot c. Early leaf spot D. Bacterial wilt
b) Name the causative agent of the ciisease mentioned in'La' above.
A. Aphids B. Leaf Hoppers C. Fungus D. Bacteria
2. Which of thefollowing pests is both a field and a storage pest?
A. Weevil B. Leaf miner C. Armyworms D. Aphids
3. Explain the importance of applying correct type and amount of fertiliser to the soil.
4. A farmer wants to apply 230Kg of nitrogen in maize field. Calculate amount of Urea fertiliser that will
be required.
5. With an aid of a diagram describe the correct way of applying CAN fertiliser using side dressing method.
6. Give one reason why integrated pest management practices is the best of allthe practices.

END OF TOPIC

TOPIC 10: PIG PRODUCTION

Pig production is one of the profitable farming business. ln this topic you will learn about breeds of pigs,
management systems, feeding and housing requirements and disease and parasite control in pigs.
10.1 Breeds of pigs
What are the two major breeds of pigs? These are Local breeds and Exotic breeds
List the exannples of local breeds? These are: Spotted white and Spotted Black
Characteristics of Iocal breeds.
e Biack or spotted black and white in colour. . Hardy and rnore resistant to diseases.
. Small and short body. n Srnall sized body.
r Straight face. o More tolerant to climatic conditions.
c Grow slowly.
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t-ist any t';uc exan'lples oi e>lctic breeds.
Tiiese are: Large vuhite, Lai"ge Biacl',, Landi'ace, SaCdle Back, Berkshi,':, Ta;n r','oi-ih anrj
Duroc Jei"sey

a racte ri sti cs c bre

o Large to rnedium in size e Produces large litter size about 14 piglets on av€rage
e Grow fast e lriot resistant to diseases

Characterlstics of irudlvidual exotic breeds of pigs

Large vrhite Lanc.irace Berkshire Saddte hack
It has a itrhite ccat i) lt has a rrYhite coat i) lt is black in coloui' i) lt is a blacl< in
i) lt has long erect thin ii) lt has drooPing ears. vilith white Points colour, with r,vhite
ea rs. iii) it is lar-ge v';ith a iong, on its feet, nose front legs and has
broad level back. and tail. a rryhite band
ii) it has a long head
and dished face. iv) it has thicti bellY anri ii) lt is a meCium- around the
-.r^^.-! l^-- -;--J ^i- chn, 'ldor
lL I r-J s !' viv u'.u
,

turned-up snout. v) ithas a short face iii) lt has erect ears, a ii) lt has a long heaci
and a straight, short nose and and a straight face
) lt has a straight
iii) lt has Crooping
belly and a high tail meciium snout. dished face.
ea rs.

Large tslack Duroc ierseY

i) lt is black in coloui- i) It is black in colour
ii) Has drooping ears. ii) sows have gooci
rnothering abilitY.

1-0.2 t'J'lanagement sYsterrls ior pig productioi'l

LA.2.L Extensive sYster,l
This is a system of i-aising pigs rvhere they are allowed to move fi-eely and find
their own food or they aie
thei-n shelter at night'
raised in en open fencedarea called padciock. A sinrple structure is buiit to
provicie
Supplementary feeds ai'e gi'ren to pigs li[<e l<itchen vuastes'
Table 48: ACvanta s anC Disadvantag es of extensive svstem
Advantages of extensive Dlsadtrantage s of extei"lsive sYsten'i
e, lt is cheap to house the Plgs u Figs are not protected fr"orn baC v;eathei', pi'edators a nd pai'asites

with a temPoi'ai'Y shelter. and thieves.

e Pigs lcck for their own food e Pigs grorr.r slou.,ly because they i653 a lot of energy in seai'ching fcr
hence feed cost is greatiY fooC"
red uced. o High chances of losing pigiets as pigs r:iove far v.rithout control.
o Does not requii-e a lot of si<ills s Detection anC control of diseases is ciifficult'
e Less laboui'demaadin3' e' It requires a large lanC tr',ihere pigs can lcok for feeci.
* Difficult to l<eep 'oreeaing recoi^ds since the fai'rner Coestr't l<ncrt'
r,i,hen the sovis were sei"ved
10.2.2 Semi-intensive sYstern
paddccl<s at ciifferent stages of growih Piglets,
This is a s\/stem of rearing pigs in bcih pens anC outsicie ;n
in naddccks'
fattenei-s and fari-cwing sov.Js are i"aiseci in pens. The grovue;"s are raised oiitsicie

Page5gcfs6iCon:nliedb',i:flrs.i"4.C'i(a';ei-;'b:i0995i853S3
 Table ,49: Advantages and Disadvantages of Ser:-r!-e;lteirsive s'

Advantages Disadvantage
o Piglets ai"e well protected from bad v,reather irain, neat, sunlight and o The grovvers are not
wind) and predators since their are ralsed in ciooi-s. protected frorn bad weather
e Fatteners gain weight fast since they aie raise d in dooi-s where they i.r,hen they are raised outsiCe
do not loose energy in search of food.
c lt is not labour demanding than intensive sy*stem since growers are
raised outside vu,ith little care.
o Feeding is cheaper since growers search for ieed in the paddocks.
o lt requires lesser land than extensive system since piglets and
fatteners are confined in tlie kraals.
10.2.3 lntensive system
This system of raising pigs by confining them in pens throughout their life on the farm. Feed and clean
vtater ai'e proviCed lo ptgs tn pei-ls. lrte pen r,riusr nave lai[o\{/ln8 []eriS, iejiilrB l-,iir) dili-.l rdLLeiliiri3 prrl).
Table 50:Advan s and Disadva of intensive system
Advantages D!sadvantages

t'il
I Pigs are well protected from bad rveatlier (rain, i) High ccst of pens because separate pens are
I heat, sunlight and wind). needed for farrcwing, rearing and fattening.
I ,,t Pigs grow fast because they do not lose energy in ii) lt requires a lot of skills to manage the pigs
search of food and tlrey are given balanced i-ation. ail the time in the pens.
iii) Easy to control diseases since they are noticed iii) lt requires a lct of labour to feed anci clean
easily and treated in time. pens all the tinre.
iv) Diseases and parasites are reduceC since pigs do
not go outside where they can contra.ct them.

3.0"3 Breeciing in pigs

10.3.1 Fuberty
puberty? This is the period of sexual maturity wlren reproductive organs begin tc function.
Vr,Ihat is
What is the age at puberty for pigs? Pigs reach pulrerty at seven to eight months of age.
L0.3.2 Mating
A sow (female pig) is ready for mating soon after v,leaning her piglets. Gilts (young fernale pig) shouici
be mated rvhen they are about 12 months olC, rveighing about 1001<9. The scurs anC gilts shculd be
mateci v,rhen they shov,, signs of heat (heat period is the period v,'hen the female pig is ready for mating
and it shows marked signs of willingness to accept the rnale pig) ft/B Ferv days before mating, sorrus anC
giits ai'e given extra concentrates.

What are the signs of heat?

o Restlessness e Fi'equent urination
o N4ucous disclrarge fronr the vulva o Loss of appetite
o Srveiling and redciening of the vulira o lt nrounts other pigs in the pen or it stands stili nrhen othei's
mount it.

\4rhat do you call gi,,ring of sovus and gilts extra concentrates feiv dalrs befcre n-iating?
- lt is calied flushing.
Explain one vday [n n,h?ch f[uslring is irnportant ia pig praCuction.
- To girre sufficient nutrients to the pig in orcer io influence oirulation and imp:"cve its feriiiit,i'.
I\ilB the solv anci boar (rnale pig) are placed in a breeding pen so that nratiirg shoulci occui'. lf the sctr,r Cces
not become pregnant it should be mated again after 21da';'s r,,rhen tne scw itill be on h:at again.
Page 50 of 56 I CoirrplieC by: h4rs. I'1.C. Kayei-nbe | 0 995 385 388
7

l-C.3.3 Gestation (PregnancY)

the cerlcd from conceptloi-r to tire time of giving bli-th. The gestaiion period in
pigs is 1-15 dav's (3
This is
given exira
months,3 r,,,eeks ani 3 cays). 3rr;rg the last 3 v;eei'.s of pregnancy pi-egnarlt sows are
co ncentrates.
of pregr'ancy?
What do you call giving of so..ns and gilts exti'a concentrates during the last 3'*reeks
It is cailed stearning uP.
Expiain three rvays in rvhich steanring up is in:portant in
pig prociuction.
e To prorride sufficient nutrients for the rapidly grov'ring foetus in tlle utei"us'
o It stir,ruiates the deveioprnent of sov,r's men'lmary glands for rnilk producticn'
o To enable the sow to be in a heaithy condition for fari"oi^'iing'
10.3.4 Farrorving/Parturition
Farrowing means giving birth to piglets. t!/B parturition is a
generalterm referred to the Di'ocess of giving
bii'th in farm atrimals.
Ho.u.,; clo 1;u knovi; ti-,at a SG'.i"' is a5sUt tO
g:;e !:l lni (5:gr's c, -r;t'i:o"-"/i5i5i
o The sow becomes restless.
e The udder aird teats become enlarged and filied v"ith rniik.
. Vulva becomes enlarged anC red'
Preparation farrcwing
date)
vdhat activities can be done to prepare for farror,"'in g? (2 weeks before the iarrovting
e Provide clean and cii'r,r grass oi'sti'a'w as lltter on the fioor of the fari'owing pen to provide comfort
to the piglets and the sorv.
* Clean and dlsinfect the fai-roi'sing pen'
e Take the sort to a farrowing pen 5-7 days before the expected date of fari"or"'ing.
e proviCe a farror,ving crate so that piglets 3re pi"otected then frcm being crusheci by their mother'
c Create a creep ieed ai"ea to allorv the piglets access their special feeci calleci creep feed"
a Provide the sow with plenty of food and ciean \'i/ater'
\rJhat activities can be dcne to care fcr piglets socn af"er farrorn ing?
fro,-n the mouth and nostrils'
" Ciean the pigiets to remove mucus
e Tie and cut the umbiiical coi'd and disinfect the wounC'
V',jeigh each Piglet.
"
e Ccunt the number of Piglets bcrn'
Place the Piglets in a warm Place'
"
L0.3.5 Rearing PlgEets
piglets to teats, pi'oviding ii-on in the feecj'
F,ear.ing piglets involves: feeding piglets cclostrum, n:atching
marl< on the piglets' N/B
ciipping the teeth of plglets, proi,isicn of v.rarrnth anci p!acing an icjentiiication
being crusheci bytheir mother, being
oiglets are very deiicateanc high death rate can occui'because of
anaemic anC chilling.
a) Feeding pigl et colostrum
after parturition'
\{rhat is coisstru,*n? Coicstrur"n is the first rniik secreted by the sow'r.vithin 2-3 ciays
[xplainfo,urvlaysinvrhichfeedingpigtetcclcstrun.lisimportant.
e it has antiboCies to boost iminunity of the pigiets'
c lt contains protei;rs for grorvth'
e it is easy to digest hence suitable to ycung pigs whose oigestir"e syste:-ns are not'u\,eii cievelopei'
e it has a laxatir,e effect ro.,hich i^reip to reniove first faecal mattei-s in the intestines'
b) Nlatching p,iglets to teats: If ther-e ai-e mcre piglets than the nui^nbei' of ieats, tl-re extra prgiets sho'rlil
be transferred to a foster sow to ai,cid competition fcrteats ciirring sucklii'lg.
Page 61 cf 65 | Conrplieri bi:: l'firs" t'4'C' I(ayeinbe I 0 995 385 388
 c) Providinq iron to pislets: Pi glets are born wrih an ii'on Ceficiency hence must be injected with iron v',ithin
three Cays cf birth to preveni anaenria since iroir he lps in foi'rnation of blood.
d) Clippine the teeth of piglets: The piglet's sharp teeth (rreec'le teeth) should be cut using pliers to pi'e\/ent
them from injuring the sorr,i's teats during sucliling hence i-eCucing the risk of tlre sotv from catching
mastitis. it also prevents the piglets from injui-ing each other or the farmer rvhen handling them.
e) Provision of r,,rarmth: Piglets should be kept in a warm piace as soon as they are born to avoid chiliing.
lnfra-red bulbs are usecj to pror,ride warmth since pigs have little hair on their bodies to l<eep them
v,/a t-m.
f) Placi an identification ar i.e. Ear notching: to avoid risk of losing the piglets

10.3.5 Castration
This is a practice which is done on piglets not nee,:'ed foi'bre:ding. It is done at four wee[<s cld
I\4 eth ods of castration.

1. Open wound method

' '":";;
the scrotum with a sharp knife.
c Remorre the testicles each in turn.
o Cut the spermatic cord with a sharp knife
c Disinfect the r,vound.
2. Bloodless methods
a) Using a burdizzo:This is equipnrent that is useC to crush the spermatic cord of piglets.
b) Using rubber band: The testicles of a piglet are tied tightly v',ith a rubber band for some v,,eeks until
they ciie and drop off.
Give four ways in which castration is ir*portant in pig proditction.
e lt prevents undesirable males from breeding.
o lt ensures that males are quieter (docile)therefore easy to handle.
e A castrated animal pi'oduces a better-quality bacon iruhen slaughtered.
o lt makes animals grow faster so that they can be sold earlier and sar,re feed cost.
LA3.7 \P"/eaning
This is the separaticn of piglets from their mother by getting them used to more solid food. lt shoulC be
done gradually when piglets ai'e about B weeks old while reducing water intake of the so\i,/ to influence its
milk dry-up. The piglets are given aicjitional feed to supplement rnother's milk. The practice of gir,,ing
additional feed to supplement their mother's milk is known as ci'eep feeding.
10.4 Froper hor.rsing irr plgs
Proper iiousing involves providing pigs v,rith a good quality house. Pigs are susceptible to stress in hot or
cold weatlier due to high fat in their skin and little hair on their coat hence they require a house that is cool
in hot vu,eather and warm in cold iveather. I'J/B Pigs house is called a piggery or pig stay.
Qcra[ities of a good pig house
e [asy to clean to avoid spreadiirg of diseases. N/B A concrete slanting fioor is easy to clean and
facilitates drainage.
" Leak,proof roof to protect pigsfrom bad weatherto avoid chiilingand dampness in the pen.
e Vi/ell veniilated to avcid suffocation and spreading of diseases.
e \A/ell-lit for easy management of pigs.
e A thaicheC roof is better than iron sheets since it keeps the pens warm at night and coolduring the
ri:,.r
s" )'

e A.dequate space to accomilodate anima[s anC equipnrent and to arroid spreading of diseases.
o StronB walls to avoid accidents due to collapsing of walls.

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7

bi'eedingloseparate
e Shouidhaveseparatepensforfarrorn,ii-,g,creepfeecing,rearing,fatten!ngand
area foi' dunging their faeces'
pigs of different ages and shoulc aiso sho'-ild have an
o Should have an area for e>lei-cise'
L0.5 Proper feeding in Pigs
of feed anC amount according to their stage
Proper feeding involves feeding pigs ciiffei-ent types
deveiopment.
given different types of feed?
\uhy shoulc different stage of pig development be
its oivn nutrient requirement'
This is because each stage of pig deveiopment has
e offeeds
Table 51: shows sta eof ,J ig develoP ment and its reconrmended
Stage cf Pig TYpe UI Deta!ls
develo :-,t feed
Piglets (day old- 10 Mirk/ Figt"ts at this stage are only fed on mi lk because their digestive
n')s are not rr.rell cievei d
d s old) colostrum
- -.^ ^ -tJ:!:^--! L;-h
^,,rii+'r foo4 in fnrm nf
PlgleIS \rU Cay5 - o L! EciJ lcEu I
I t iii ,Lsq ve!Le

weeks old) peliets to supplement mother's milk'

ii) it ir f,igl,ty digestible hence suitable to piglets since their
Cigestive systems are not well developed'
iii) lt is highly palatable to allor'v them eat mcre'
iv) lt is high in prctein content to enable piglets groiv fasi'
v) lt rs high in iron tc prevent anaemia'
vi) lt is re ach in calcium for strong bones
Pigiets grow fast at this stage hence the feed v,,rill assist
them to
Weaners or Weaners or
gro\ Iers grow fast.
growers (8 rveeks -
(n mash lt The feed contains less crude rotein than creeP feed
Fatteners (over Finisher or i) lt is rich in nutrients to enables pigs get bigger and fatter before
s0kg) fatte n e r slaughtering them.
meal. ii) The feed has high carbohy'Jrate leveis but with low crude
protein compared to creep and vueaners meal hence cheapesl
ofthema}i.h,UtsTheyshouidbegivenaciequatefeedinrespect
to their bo rveight.
for
Breeders {bocrs and Boars and i) The feed is used to provide energy to the boars anC sov"s
!.raodino
souts) These are recred sows meal u'LLvr.r5'

for the praCucticn of ii) The feed is used to impror.'e fertility of the sor'-'s
!ets.

lC.6 The contrc! and prevention of parasites and dlseases

living organisms for its fooii. Parasites are classitieci into
A Parasite is an organisrn that depend on anothei"
parasites' External par asites feeC on clutside the body of the
two groups namely: external anci internal
animatwhileintei.nalparasitesfeedinsidethebodyontheanimal

7,wri|f+:i*i
Ftq )3. t Fiit 23. :' ai-, -J? -)

!'^ -l ;

995 385 388

Page 63 of 55 I Conrpliecl by: Mrs' li4 C l(ayenbe I
C
 Table 52: shov,rs external parasites of , dama e caused ano' ccntrol measures
Parasite Damage caused Contro[ n']easures
Pig mange also called o lntense itching c Disinfect the pig house with
itch mite iFig 23.5i o [ry, scaly skin chemica ls.
o Loss of blood due to sucking. o l(eep the hcuse clean.
e Sores on skin since they feed on the
tissues.
Louse iFie 23.1) e Skin irritation e l(eep the house clean
e Loss of biood due to sucking e Ti'eat with suita ble
e Reduced rowth rate chemica ls

Table 53: The table below shows internal rasites of pigs, dam caused and control measures
Parasite Signs Control measure
r cPE vvvr I rr [riB 4.).k,1 * L.arva cI rape worm 0estrc'y' e Grvrng tne pig suiiable
the muscles of the pig, d rugs.
Life cycle of tape v;o1m o Stornach upset or pain e.Sanitation
The liie cycle oi tope worm is cs follaws: pig
(secondary host) gets infested by the tspe
The
l" Restlessness o Raising pigs in pens
worms ihrough eating egg cantamineted feeds. or
The eEgs hotch into larva in the intestines and in an enclosed area to
pass through the intestine w,all and settle in the prevent them fi'om
muscles w,here they develap cysts. The mon eating infected human
(prirnary host) gets infested after eating hclf f^^^^-
coaked pork. The cysts in a human develop into
adults which praduce eggs and are later passed o Fi'oper human waste
out together w,ith faeces. N/B: Tape worm disposa i.
requires tu,,o hasts ta complete its liie cycle. o Proper cooking of
Meat.
Roundvuorm (Fig 23.3)
i" Loss of appetite Giving pigs suitable
e Pot belly drugs (deu;orm)
Round worms live in the gut and suck
" Rough hair coat e Avoiding rearing pigs
digested feed and in the process ciamage o Diarrhoea and voiding of live on muddy grounds
the intestines causing intei'nal bleeding" Vri Of mS c Keeping the house
The life cvcle of rou nd rvorms o Pigs become weak ^t^-^
anci thin LrEdt L
Adult lay eEEs in the intestines which are possed
e Anaemia e Disinfect the Kraal.
out together with faeces. When a pig eats
iniected feed ond drink infested vrater the eggs o Constipation
hatch into the blood streafi dnd csuse damage e \rVeight loss
to liver and lungs. The larua then goes bock to
the intestines where they turn into aCult.
Kidney worm (Fig23.2) Stunting and emaciation. c l(eep the pen clean
Kidney \ivorms infect the renaI pelvis and Posterior paralysis since it o Confining pigs to
fats surrounding the kicney but migrate affects the spinal cord and concrete floors
to the brain, spinal cord and abdorrrinal the central nervous svstem
organs. The nrorm is 2-5cm long, some
are white and others are black in colour-

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7

-,,': a=a:;l= i=5ie b=lo"" s:'lc\"s; .::s:;:i c'

Dise ase JrSr r
Ccntrcl
.\ ./:il -".--t t^..,-,. ;ni=Ctgd
Af rican srvine fever i) Fe'.,er l,l l\rll cll(J Jul )'
rrl ir:r^aQ -i-.
it is calseC by virus. ttt -il.-.^.a'r-, !r5J

Tr:nsniiired by vuild iii) Bieec i5 ilcn the hea'J

Pigs,
ii) Disinte ct Pig houses
ticks, iice. !t is spread thrcugh iv) Lacrinraticn ifoul sn:eiling 'vatei"y'
befo;-e housit'rg new
contact i, ;th sick pigs or tnelr Cischarge fr-cm the eyes and ncsei stock
biccC, oing a:rcirviid P:gs.lt is ,) Coughrng :-,: i'or: "1;r,3 iii) Quarantine
a highiy ccntagious disease vi) Death ilri Vaccinaticn
anC a nct;ilabie ciisease. lt has

I Hog cholera i) High fever i) Vaccinating pigiets 1--2

It i-. caused !:v virus ii) Lcss cf apDetite after v,,eaning.

.--^ Ll, -,t -i
it is tr-a:smitied ilirough Illl Ui'OOpin3 neto i,l tSUro.C tilg 5rLt. dIr'llol
^-:*

contact v,,irh the biood, body ir,) G=neral iteakness ::rJ iii) Ke:P ihe house clean'
ri--.,^- ,^^-^-
rc:iLt), ,,.i-^
Uil,i= --al
srru depressicn.
tl55-35,
Cischarges ircm the nose and i,) Ccnstipeticn folioit'ed 3y
oi,:q -.i ;r{.=l^i Ffl a: :if,e iS c ra ri'hoea.
r,ii Purple or resdish ciiscoicraticn cf
the skin ai'cund ihe belli', ears anc
legs.
i,ii) Convulsions
rriii)Loss cf balaace
ix) Sit,olien ei/es \rJhich maY neve
sticl<y ei'eliis cir:e to stichy v' hiie
)t-^i^-^- -
e,Jv. is:5ev,

:\rc5!tLi) i) Infecteci udder beconres sttcllen i) Treat :h: uio:r r"'ith

i^+ --!:-^,^ri^
.:,S ^-:-l i:,.='rrUil
,!:- '.-i^--
-^ Ui
^l illa:i1ilafV
-. --,J v,, L'J!ts !'!'

i ^:,^ -L ^:n ..:ltabig

i,.c- i-.'r3
-i- ^,t- ii) \liik becci'nes '"{r3tei';r and I Lrlvc )
ccntaii:s clots of fats. a ntibictics.
it is:ausej by ba:tei-ia.
;!i\ l.'3oi {:rrn,,.
: cr I urr i:= r.3.<
The bacteriai infectlon is iiii ReiuceC rnllk proCucticn. rri/ I\==y r:,5 P*"J
-^-l ui 4rrr
influenceci by unhygienic ^l^--
LlCg'l oiiJ Y.

conciitirn-s in lhe ili'aal anci ii,) Clip the neeCIe teeth of

blies from i-leeale llile teeih of
, piglets to avaiC teat
.J-*-
(-ldl'lC
;ets
A-^^..:^
At tc=l i tId i) General body it,eai<ness r) Aid ir"on to cigiet feeci cr
It is causeC ny lack of iron in ii) Paie sl.lin coicur on the ei'es inject them vrith irc;r.
the bcdr,. iii) Rapici b;"eathing
tv Greyish dia:'r'hoea
Pneurnon!a !l,! tvt,t
lr\, adrrin
!vrcir ,i) Give sick pigs sui:abie
it ls causeJ b,' 5u"ui'i::l- :,1 J-!i,,:cu XIi'tr i:r , drugs
'.ri n r: ii) the hou.s3 v,,ai';^n

?ag: 55 cr 55 | Conrplied by: tlr"s. li4.C. Ka1'err,be I C 995 385 388

Tai,,le 55: Prcc:sses usej :n pa:as:--: :r.; :.sease ::::::i :n p,;.

tron-injection De-vsormin
il':i, l'"/iattr"ia is rec it ; i'-'i : l-{:tei"ia is reo iirei : r )i<:na3e i2 n:<
lr'i rei uirecj : S l rir-ge. A.
=terials ;--^-,-;-- aJ-,,'r rntc,-ti.,:
cottln v.,oci, spirit U,:i;-l:il'5 ^ai r3a i-a r, 'r'c: r
Proceciu re P i-oced u re Pi-ocedui'e
i. Restrain the piglet. t. P,estrain ihe pi3i=t. i. Put on the p:-ctec:ive wear
ii. Dravu reco;';imendeC anrcur:t cf ii. D!:^g hr ^lrr r: ir':
f ii. Fiilthe spral'er v'r;tlr
lhc.irsnrhi?= l:-:-t^^.-^+-
iron into the barre! of a syringe. =:'-. ui>tiii=LLGllLJ.

iii. $i ipe the area to be admir:istereci ;::

:i!, Open rhe inouii 'tf ;ii. Spi'av the affe:teC areas
i.., irri'r ihc
ir:= er,-+cr-- ^t Li^
using a ccit3n u'rol CippeC ir -L^ ^i-l^. li -,rti,.Lr LU.,rEri:) Ul .tl:j
:+
-^i-i+ rL. >trc'r 3 -irn ,t'l rie --J,^,^.1^
)iJ: t \ =r 3:'U r'! G). ' t
)Plr
^f +L^ :::.e rg\1,.r
iv. Pierce the rt'ipeC s[<in of the pigiet l.iJU.rt
-^..!L Ul Lrl= -:^i^+
F'::;lc\
.,-;--.t^^ ..^^Jl^ ^t\i^^ -,,-i-*^ ,, ,1,:<L i.nr 'r i:arirr :-,.i :h:^cs
^l ^:L -
r,. Push the conteiits of lhe si'riirge
";si:3 a prur^,ger intc pig's bo:".
r.'i. \ri'ile i:.e':-:jecter a:ea i-s::,g
LUiLL;i "'-^'
\a JJI
;i^-5.i
J'iil'E.-'..1U irt.r <r:i'i'
.:p,,'..

Revieisi questicns
1 lh:i:.=,r-o)1iq;,..;i:rr:^:qh:r,.t.in?2":-.ai,-:;:,jr=.':.":i-,:,rf,.,=j::t:"'l
- :1 rJ rrr'.J e
t^
n;c,--.r^irr.ii-^
Ji{ i JJlurl;.1.
| :.^
U5=:.
i' L^
rC a::5\'ri,>
- - '-L-r
-U=5-;-:i).'r<'L
iu: '^"'
Ji!' -*"a;'
- 1 rl^--::.. +i- ^ ,-- - -!;.,:!\,
-F! ll :-L,r.L\
a| :'.jE..'.lif -.lC ,:i: 'cq!:,'cr '

bi Gi.,e anir tLryG vu'avs in u,'hi:h lhe me;rag:;i-,r:rt ac:irit','l',:i;,:1 a:c-'e :s

ir r^ rt: ri
.'(' in, ni:
P'5
n-rn r:-i.-n

2. Ci;e :ne t':3S.Jn ,,.'h,,3 f:;p-,il'l':^,C-.:i 1..,f ,,,,S,2:S.:.f ::a:t:i1 i:i3S.

3. Erpi:in the importa:ice irf the icllrc lng rnailagement practices in pigs
e. Sieam,rg uP
b. Flushing
,
+. -^-^-:-^
Ji>Lr:.Jc r:.'^..-'.-
rtvE Y\c!': y't=t="\..r5
Lt -r-.,a-r:,1
^$ uiie S,'i-e
- ".---^:i^. 5 b';iJ
^-{ -il)uc:e-t "^' p SS'
.ii:=rco:i

5. f,iame the iiiain ccxime:^ci=l:eeo'si'.ren tc DiSs at .he i;i{o'.', ir'3 s':ages.

-a. :-.,
JC) Lrru (u Ir'l
^I-.1 ln
-..1r,
-v -q) )<
b. S r.,;eells tc 531'g

5. fi'hy'is:t reces;ary i3 ci;;:h= i==cle:e:th c; ;:;g'=ts?

7 . A farnrer observec the fclici,;ing s\'li rDtorns in p;gs:
t Puri:ie discoloralion of the si:in arcund the beliir, ears anJ iegs;
*
-li:h
'.'5..,"'.
f.:r,;r',
c
Diari-h:ea;
Use tne i:lformation to 3nsv.'er questlcns rl",at foiiow:
a. l:=n:iiv tle dis:ase ih"t:tlaci.ed p;;s.
b. ltai'ne tl'e causat:le agent cf ti'e :isEase r;;';3 ii1 l;.
C' Cii'e an1' tv"O vr'3i'5 Cf CCntrC:i:Lg t:'e diS-:3'e - a:-:i il' je'

[T.{D CF TOF;C

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