Manufacturing Engineering Lecture Notes (MEC 512)

(Recommended text: Modern Manufacturing Engineering by J. Paulo Davim)

Module 1: Definition and Importance of Manufacturing

Manufacturing: the process of converting raw materials into products; it encompasses the design and
manufacturing of goods using various production methods and techniques. It came from Latin “manu
factus” – made by hand and is Interchangeably used with “production”, “discrete” vs “continuous”
products. Manufactured item has monetary worth (added value) than raw materials Manufacturing is
closely linked to national and global economy

Sequential Process
Design ->Manufacturing. This process wastes resource, waste time

Concurrent Process
All disciplines are involved in the earliest stages of product design. Progress concurrently so iterations
results in less wasted effort and time
Key to success: well-recognized communication among and within disciplines

Simultaneous Engineering
A systematic approach integrating the design and manufacture of the products with the view toward
optimizing all elements involved in the life cycle of the product

Basic goal
• Minimize design and manufacture changes
• Minimize time and cost in taking the product from conceptual design to production and introduction
of the product to market

Key to success:
– Full support of an organization’s top management
– Multifunctional and interacting work team, including support groups
– Utilization of all available state-of-the-art technologies

Design for Manufacture, Assembly, Disassembly, and Service

Each part or component of a product must be designed to not only meets design requirements and
specifications, but also to be manufactured economically and relative ease. Product must be designed
that individual parts can be assembled together with speed, and minimum cost. Product must also be
designed so that disassembly is possible with relative ease require little time, enabling the product to
be taken apart for maintenance, servicing, or recycling of their components. Product must be designed
so that individual parts are easy to reach and service.

Design Principle for Economic Production

Designs should be as simple as possible to manufacture, assembly, dissemble, service and recycle.
Materials should be chosen for their appropriate design and manufacturing characteristics as well as
their service life. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as broad as permissible.
Secondary and finishing operations should be avoided or minimized to reduce cost.

Materials Selection
Materials used in today’s manufacturing
– Ferrous metals: carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, and tool and die steels

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– Nonferrous metals and alloys: Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, super alloys, Ti, refractory metals (Mb, Nb, W,
beryllium, Zr, low melting alloys (lead, zinc and tin), and precious metals
– Plastics: Thermosets, thermoplastics, and elastomers
– Ceramics: Glass ceramics, glasses, graphite, and diamond
– Composites: Reinforced plastics, metal-matrix and ceramics-matrix composites, and honeycomb
structures
– Nanomaterials, shape-memory alloys, metal foams, amorphous alloys, super conductors and
semiconductors
Material substitution
Material properties: mechanical, physical, chemical, manufacturing Cost and availability Service life
and recycling

Categories of Conventional Manufacturing Processes

– Casting: expandable molding and permanent molding
– Forming and shaping: rolling, forging, extrusion, drawing, sheet forming, powder metallurgy
molding
– Machining: turning, boring, drilling, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, grinding, ultrasonic
machining; chemical, electrical, and electrochemical machining and high energy electron beam
machining
– Joining: welding, brazing, soldering, diffusion bonding, adhesive bonding and mechanical joining
– Micro and nano manufacturing: surface micromachining, dry and wet etching, and electroforming
– Finishing: honing, lapping, polishing, burnishing, deburring, surface treating, coating and plating

Factors affecting process selection

• Component/part shape
• Materials characteristics – castability, formability, machinability, weldability, etc
• Part size and dimensional accuracy
• Manufacturing and operational cost

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 Module 2: Metal casting processes
Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing process. It is the first step in making most of the products.
Steps:
 Making mold cavity
 Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a suitable furnace.
 Liquid is poured into a prepared mold cavity
 Allowed to solidify
 Product is taken out of the mold cavity, trimmed and made to shape.
We should concentrate on the following for successful casting operation:
(i) Preparation of molds of patterns
(ii) Melting and pouring of the liquefied metal
(iii) Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
(iv) Defects and inspection

Advantages
1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this
process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be
minimized.
2. Possible to cast practically any material: ferrous or non-ferrous.
3. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for
production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.
4. There are certain parts (like turbine blades) made from metals and alloys that can only be
processed this way. Turbine blades: Fully casting + last machining.
5. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.
6. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes are a
limitation to this technique.
7. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the
aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting
process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process, and shell molding
process.
8. Metal casting is a labour intensive process
9. Automation: a question

Typical Sand Mould

Fig. 1: Mould Section and casting nomenclature

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Fig. 2: Pattern attached with gating and risering system

Fig. 3: Mould Section and casting nomenclature, (a) top view, (b) front view

Important casting terms

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag –
lower molding flask, cope – upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate molding flask used in three
piece molding. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with
the help of pattern.
Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.
Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions. Facing sand: The small amount
of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface
finish to the castings.
Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings
and various shaped cavities in the castings.
Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured.
Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity.
In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
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Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic force.
Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies.
Also known as “feed head”.
Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
Steps sand castings in making
The six basic steps in making sand castings are,
(i) Pattern making,
(ii) Core making,
(iii) Molding,
(iv) Melting and pouring,
(v) Cleaning
Pattern making: Pattern is the replica of the part to be cast and is used to prepare the mold cavity. It
is the physical model of the casting used to make the mold. Made of either wood or metal.
The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand,
surrounding the pattern. When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity. This
cavity is filled with metal to become the casting.
If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called ‘cores’, are used to form these cavities.
Core making: Cores are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of castings. Thus the
void space is filled with molten metal and eventually becomes the casting.
Molding: Molding is nothing but the mold preparation activities for receiving molten metal. Molding
usually involves:
(i) preparing the consolidated sand mold around a pattern held within a supporting metal
frame,
(ii) removing the pattern to leave the mold cavity with cores. Mold cavity is the primary cavity.
The mold cavity contains the liquid metal and it acts as a negative of the desired product.
The mold also contains secondary cavities for pouring and channeling the liquid material in to the
primary cavity and will act a reservoir, if required.
Melting and Pouring: The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting.
The molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where the molds are filled.
Cleaning: Cleaning involves removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the casting. Burned-on
sand and scale are removed to improve the surface appearance of the casting. Excess metal, in the
form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for defects and
general quality is performed.

Making a simple sand mold

1) The drag flask is placed on the board
2) Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board
3) Drag half of the pattern is located on the mold board. Dry facing sand will provide a non-
sticky layer.
4) Molding sand is then poured in to cover the pattern with the fingers and then the drag is filled
completely
5) Sand is then tightly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. Peen hammers (used first
close to drag pattern) and butt hammers (used for surface ramming) are used.
6) The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft. Too soft ramming will
generate weak mold and imprint of the pattern will not be good. Too hard ramming will not
allow gases/air to escape and hence bubbles are created in casting resulting in defects called
‘blows’. Moreover, the making of runners and gates will be difficult.
7) After the ramming is finished, the excess sand is leveled/removed with a straight bar known as
strike rod.
8) Vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to
facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification. Done by vent rod.

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9) The finished drag flask is now made upside down exposing the pattern.
10) Cope half of the pattern is then placed on the drag pattern using locating pins. The cope flask is
also located with the help of pins. The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag surface
and on the pattern.
11) A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at some distance from the pattern edge.
Riser pin is placed at an appropriate place.
12) Filling, ramming and venting of the cope is done in the same manner.

13) The sprue and riser are removed and a pouring basin is made at the top to pour the liquid
metal.
14) Pattern from the cope and drag is removed.
15) Runners and gates are made by cutting the parting surface with a gate cutter. A gate cutter is a
piece of sheet metal bent to the desired radius.
16) The core for making a central hole is now placed into the mold cavity in the drag. Rests in core
prints.
17) Mold is now assembled and ready for pouring.

Pattern: The pattern and the part to be made are not same. They differ in the following aspects.
1. A pattern is always made larger than the final part to be made. The excess dimension is known
as Pattern allowance. Pattern allowance => shrinkage allowance, machining allowance
2. Shrinkage allowance: will take care of contractions of a casting which occurs as the metal
cools to room temperature.
Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state to solid
state. Riser which feed the liquid metal to the casting is provided in the mold to compensate for
this.
Solid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.
Shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns to account for this. Shrink rule is used to
compensate solid shrinkage depending on the material contraction rate.

Fig 4: Pattern having draft allowance on vertical surfaces

Core and core print:

- Cores are used to make holes, recesses etc. in castings
- So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core inside the mold cavity.
Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it
forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the mold.
- The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during
the casting operation.
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 Pattern materials
• Patterns for sand castings are subjected to considerable wear and tear due to ramming action that is
required and the abrasive action of the sand

• Should be impervious to moisture because of changing surroundings

• Made of wood, metal, plastics, plaster and synthetic materials

• Woods: white pine, sugar pine; The wood should be straight grain, light, easy to work, little tendency
to develop crack and warp.

• More durable: Mahogany

• For large castings: metal such as cast iron or aluminum
• When metal pattern are cast from the wooden master pattern, double shrinkage must be provided on
the wooden master pattern
Heating the metal
Furnaces are used to heat (and melt) the metal to a molten temperature sufficient for casting. The total
heat energy required is the sum of
(1) the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point,
(2) the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid, and
(3) the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring

H =ρV {Cs (Tm-Ta) + Hf + Cl (Tp-Tm)} -------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)

The above formula is used to calculate the total heat required to increase the temperature of a metal to the liquid
pouring point
H: total heat required to increase the temperature of the metal to the pouring temp (in J)
ρ: density (in g/cm3)
V: Volume of metal used for heating (in cm3)
Cs: Specific heat for the solid (in J/g0C)
Tm : Melting temperature of the metal (in 0C)
Ta: Ambient temperature (or starting) (in 0C)
Hf : Heat of fusion (in J/g)
Cl: specific heat of the liquid metal (in J/g0C)
Tp: Temperature of the pouring liquid (in 0C)

Assumptions valid for the above eqn. are,

Specific heat and other thermal properties of a solid metal are constant and not dependent on
temperature, but not really true especially if the metal undergoes a phase change during heating.
Sometimes specific heat of metal in solid and liquid states are assumed same, but not really true
Single melting point which is not valid for alloys as there is a temperature range between solidus and
liquidus temperature. Thus, the heat of fusion cannot be applied so simply as indicated above.
There are no heat losses to the environment during heating, but not really true

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 Exercises

1. A disk 40 cm in diameter and 5 cm thick is to be casted of pure aluminum in an open mold

operation. The melting temperature of aluminum = 660°C and the pouring temperature will be
800°C. Assume that the amount of aluminum heated will be 5% more than needed to fill the
mold cavity. Compute the amount of heat that must be added to the metal to heat it to the
pouring temperature, starting from a room temperature of 25°C. The heat of fusion of
aluminum = 389.3 J/g. density = 2.7 g/cm3 and specific heat C = 0.88 J/g-°C. Assume the
specific heat has the same value for solid and molten aluminum.
Ans: Heat required = 19,082,756 J
Hint: H =ρV {Cs (Tm-Ta) + Hf + Cl (Tp-Tm)}
2. A sufficient amount of pure copper is to be heated for casting a large plate in an open mold.
The plate has dimensions: L = 20 in, W = 10 in, and D = 3 in. Compute the amount of heat that
must be added to the metal to heat it to a temperature of 2150 F for pouring. Assume that the
amount of metal heated will be 10% more than needed to fill the mold cavity. Properties of the
metal are: density = 0.324 lbm/in3, melting point = 1981 F, specific heat of the metal = 0.093
Btu/lbm-F in the solid state and 0.090 Btu/lbm-F in the liquid state; and heat of fusion = 80
Btu/lbm.

Ans: Heat required = 58265 btu

Hint: H =ρV {Cs (Tm-Ta) + Hf + Cl (Tp-Tm)}

Solidification Time
During the early stages of solidification, a thin skin begins to form at the relatively cool mold walls,
and as time
passes, the thickness of the skin increases. With flat mold walls, this thickness is proportional to the
square root of time. Thus, doubling the time will make the skin √2 = 1.41 times of 41% thicker.
The solidification time is a function of the volume of a casting and its surface area. This is known as

Chvorinov’s Rule

Chvorinov’s Rule is a mathematical relationship first expressed by Nicholas Chvorinov in 1940, that
relates the solidification time for a simple casting to the volume and surface area of the casting. In
simple terms the rule establishes that under otherwise identical conditions, the casting with large
surface area and small volume will cool more rapidly than a casting with small surface area and large
volume. The relationship can be written as:
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Solidification time = C( ) n ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Where:
C: is a constant that reflects (a) the mold material, (b) the metal properties (including latent
heat), and (c) the temperature.
n: has a value between 1.5 and 2, but usually is taken as 2.

The mold constant C depends on the properties of the metal such as density, heat capacity, Heat of
fusion and superheat and the mold, such as initial temperature, density, thermal conductivity, heat
capacity and wall thickness. The SI units of the mold constant C is s/m 2. The mold constant of
Chvorinoves rule, C, can be calculated using the following formula:
𝜌𝑚𝐿 2 𝜋 𝐶𝑚 (𝑇𝑝 −𝑇𝑚 ) 2
C = (𝑇 ) [ ] [1 + ( ) ] -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3)
𝑚 −𝑇𝑜 4𝑘𝜌𝑐 𝐿
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Where:
Tm = melting or freezing temperature of the liquid (in Kelvins)
To = Initial temperature of the mold (in Kelvins)
Tp = Pouring temperature (in Kelvins)
Cm = Specific heat of the metal (in[J.kg-1.K-1])
C = Specific Heat of the mold (in[J.kg-1.K-1])
L = Latent heat of fusion (in [J.kg-1])
K = thermal conductivity of the mold (in [W.m-1.K-1])
ρ = Density of the metal (in [kg.m-3])

Thus, a large solid sphere will solidify and cool to ambient temperature at a much slower rate than will
a smaller solid sphere. The reason for this is that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the cube of
its diameter, and the surface area is proportional to the square of its diameter. Similarly, it can be
shown that molten metal in a cube-shaped mold will solidify faster than in a spherical mold of the
same volume
Exercise
A steel casting has a cylindrical geometry with 4.0 in diameter and weighs 20 lb. This casting takes 6.0
min to completely solidify. Another cylindrical shaped casting with the same diameter-to-length ratio
weighs 12 lb. This casting is made of the same steel, and the same conditions of mold and pouring
were used. Determine: (a) the mold constant in Chvorinov’s rule, (b) the dimensions, and (c) the total
solidification time of the lighter casting. The density of steel 490 lb/ft3.

Example 3: Solidification times for different shapes

Defects in sand castings

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Sand blow and Pinholes: defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity or gas cavities caused by
release of mold gases during pouring. It is present just below the casting top surface. Low
permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold are the usual causes.
Sand wash: surface dip that results from erosion of the sand mold during pouring. This contour is
formed in the surface of the final cast part.
Scab: It is caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and gets embedded
in the casting surface.
Penetration: surface defect that occurs when the liquid penetrates into the sand mold as the fluidity of
liquid metal is high, After solidifying, the casting surface consists of a mixture of sand and metal.
Harder ramming of sand mold minimize this defect.
Mold shift: defect caused by displacement of the mold cope in sideward direction relative to the drag.
This results in a step in the cast product at the parting line. Core shift: displacement of core vertically.
Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of the molten metal.
Mold crack: ‘fin’ like defect in cast part that occurs when mold strength is very less, and a crack
develops, through which liquid metal can seep.
Misruns: castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity. This occurs because of (1)
low fluidity of the molten metal, (2) low pouring temperature, (3) slow pouring, (4) thinner cross-
section of the mold cavity.
Cold Shuts: This defect occurs when two portions of the metal flow together but no fusion occurs
between them due to premature freezing.
Cold shots: forming of solid globules of metal that are entrapped in the casting. Proper pouring
procedures and gating system designs can prevent this defect.
Shrinkage cavity: cavity in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by solidification
shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal present in the last region to freeze. It is sometimes
called as ‘pipe’. Proper riser design can solve this problem. Microporosity: network of small voids
distributed throughout the casting caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the final molten
metal.

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 Module 3: Die casting
Definition
Die casting is a moulding process in which the molten metal is injected under high pressure and
velocity into a split mould die. It is also called pressure die casting. The split mould used under this
type of casting is reusable. Die casting is categorized two types namely- hot chamber and cold
chamber as shown in Figure M2.3.1. Metals like Zinc, tin and lead alloys are casted in hot chamber die
casting having melting point below 3900C whereas aluminum alloys are casted in cold chamber die
casting machine. Aluminum dissolves ferrous parts in the die chamber and hence preferred to be used
in cold chamber die casting. Continuous contact of molten metal is avoided by using a ladle for
introducing molten metal directly to the machine.

Steps and Procedure in Die Casting

The die casting process consists of 5 basic steps

Clamping
The first step in die casting is clamping. The dies are cleaned and lubricated to aid in step two,
injection. Once the dies have been properly cleaned and lubricated, the die halves are closed and
clamped together with high pressure.
Injection

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The molten metal is transferred from a furnace into a ladle. The ladle then pours the molten metal into
shot chamber where it is ready to be injected into the clamped die. The molten metal is then forced
into the die using extremely high pressure. The high pressure then holds the metal in the die until it has
time to solidify.
Cooling
The third step in the process is cooling. After the molten metal is injected into the die, it must have
time to solidify and cool. During this time the die cannot be unclamped. Once the metal has
completely cooled it takes on its final shape of the casting.
Ejection
Once the cooling process has finished, the die halves can be unclamped and an ejection mechanism
pushes the solidified casting out of the die.
Trimming
The final step in the die casting process is trimming. While the metal is cooling, the excess metal in
the sprue and runner must be removed along with any flash that has transpired. This extra material is
then trimmed away from the final casting. The trimmed sprue, runners, and flash can then be recycled
and reused in the die casting process.

Die Casting Machine

Advantages of the die casting process

1. High production rate.
2. High accuracy in part dimensions.
3. Smooth surface finish for minimum mechanical finishing.
4. Ability to make many intricate parts such as hole opening slot trademark number etc.
5. Much thinner wall sections can be produced which can’t be produced by other casting methods.
6. Varieties of alloys can be used as per design requirements. For example zinc can be used for
intricate forms and plasticity, aluminum for higher structural strength, rigidity and light weight.
7. Ability to cast inserts such as pins studs shafts, fasteners etc.

Disadvantages of the die casting process

1. Microporosity in the die casting products is a common problem because of faster solidification,
trapped air and vaporized die lubricants.
2. Undercuts cannot be found in simple two piece dies.
3. Hollow shapes are not readily casted because of the high metal pressure.
4. Limited sizes of the products can be produced based on the availability of the equipment
5. High melting temperature alloys are practically not die casted
6. Flash is present except for very small zinc die casting.

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Applications
Die casting process is preferred for nonferrous metal parts of intricate shapes. Examples of products
are automobiles appliances, hand tools, computer peripherals, toys, optical and photographic
equipment etc.
Suitable material consideration
Since dies are made from tool steel, for die casting products lower melting point nonferrous materials
are used. Popular among them are aluminum and zinc alloys. In recent days, ferrous metal die casting
is carried out on an experimental basis. Also on limited production basis, dies with refractory material
are used for materials having high melting temperature of about 17000C.
General design consideration
The following design guidelines need to be followed for die casting:
1. Identify the possibility of incorporating several functions in to one die casting. Full advantages must
be taken for the reduction of machining that die casting can afford.
2. Before the design and construction of die begin the designer should finalize the design of die casted
product and its producibility. Dies after machined undergo heat treatment for hardening.
3. The designer must consult die cater about the location of the ejector pin as early as possible in the
product design stage itself. If the impression left by the pins are not tolerable or can’t be cored out, as
an alternative solution rings or sleeve ejection can be opted.
4. Abrupt section changes, sharp corners and wall at an acute angle to one another need to be avoided.
These features disturb the continuity of metal flow and lead to form a porous structure and surface
irregularities. Therefore, it is recommended to provide radii as generous as possible with differing
sections blending into one another.
5. Blind recesses are needed to be provided in the die to form bosses. Due to trapped air subsurface
porosity is developed and this causes the drills to wander and taps to break in secondary machining
and hence recommended to be avoided.

In this process, high pressure of 7 to 350 MPa is used to pressurize the molten metal into die cavity.
The pressure is maintained during solidification. Category: hot chamber machines, cold chamber
machines

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 Module 4: Centrifugal casting
In this method, the mold is rotated at high speed so that the molten metal is distributed by the
centrifugal force to the outer regions of the die cavity

includes : true centrifugal casting, semi-centrifugal casting

- Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part (pipes, tubes, bushings, and
rings)
- Molten metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one end. The high-speed rotation results in
centrifugal forces that cause the metal to take the shape of the mold cavity. The outside shape of the
casting can be non-round, but inside shape of the casting is perfectly round, due to the radial symmetry
w.r.t. forces
Centrifugal casting consists of producing castings by causing molten metal to solidify in rotating
molds. The speed of the rotation and metal pouring rate vary with the alloy and size and shape being
cast. The following operations include in centrifugal casting - rotation of mold at a known speed,
pouring the molten metal, proper solidification rate, and extraction of the casting from the mold. The
idea of employing centrifugal force to make castings had been known for a long time, it was A. G.
Eckhardt’s original patent of 1809 which revealed understanding the basic principles involved.
Centrifugal casting has greater reliability than static castings. They are relatively free from gas and
shrinkage porosity. Many times, surface treatments such as case carburizing, flame hardening and
nitriding have to be used when a wear resistant surface must be combined with a hard tough exterior
surface. One such application is bimetallic pipe consisting of two separate concentric layers of
different alloys/metals bonded together. Such pipes can be economically used in many applications
and can be produced by centrifugal casting process. Typically, in centrifugal casting, the following
structure or zones may occur, Chill Zone – This layer is of fine equiaxed structure which forms almost
instantaneously at the mold wall, Columnar Zone – This is next to chill zone. It consists of
directionally oriented crystals approx. perpendicular to the mold surface, Equiaxed zone – this region
may occur next to columnar zone characterized by large number of uniformly grown crystals.
Centrifugal casting is suitable for the production of hollow parts, such as pipes. The process is suited
for producing structures with large diameters – pipes for oil, chemical industry installations and water
supply, etc.
Defects in Centrifugal Casting
Conventional static casting defects like internal shrinkage, gas porosity and nonmetallic inclusions are
less likely to occur in centrifugal casting.
Hot Tears – Hot tears are developed in centrifugal castings for which the highest rotation speeds are
used. Longitudinal tears occur when contraction of casting combined with the expansion of the mould,
generates hoop stresses exceeding the cohesive strength of the metal at temperatures in the solidus
region.
Segregation - Centrifugal castings are under various forms of segregation thus pushing less dense
constituents at centre.

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Banding – Sometimes castings produce zones of segregated low melting point constituents such as
eutectic phases and sulphide and oxide inclusions. Various theories explain this, one states vibration is
the main cause of banding.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Casting
1) The casting is relatively free from defects.
2) Non metallic impurities which segregate toward the bore can be machined off.
3) Less loss of metal in tundish compared to that in gating and risering in conventional sand casting.
4) Better mechanical properties.
5) Production rate is high.
6) Can be employed to manufacture bimetallic pipes.
7) Centrifugal casting process can be used for fabricating functionally gradient metal matrix composite
material.
Bimetallic pipes can be produced by centrifugal casting by using a cheaper material in place of a
highly alloyed material. This will reduce cost of the bimetallic casting. Initially outer metal is poured
in the rotating mold (mold is coated with a refractory coating) followed by pouring of second material
with some time gap. When the freezing is complete the tube has an annular weld or diffusion zone.
The second metal should be poured in the rotating mold after the first metal has lost fluidity. If second
metal is poured earlier then the composition and thickness of second metal will be changed. Also if
second metal is poured late than the first metal then there won’t be good bonding.
The centrifugal casting can be used for metal matrix composite (MMC) melts. For example if stir cast
aluminum/graphite melt is poured in the rotating mold, graphite particles will segregate in the inner
periphery of the centrifugal casting as graphite density is lower than aluminum. Thus such casting can
be employed for bearing applications.
Basic Calculations
Simple analytical calculations from the first principle can show the desired minimum rotational
speed of molds in centrifugal, in particular, horizontal centrifugal casting process. The
centrifugal force (F) experienced by molten metal (cast) when rotating in a horizontal mold
in horizontal centrifugal casting can be given as:

(4)

where, m refers to the mass (in kg), v refers to the tangential velocity (in m/s), and R refers to the
internal radius (in m) of the mold. The force due to gravity of the motel metal rotating along
with the mold can be estimated as “mg”, where m is the mass (in kg) and g is the acceleration
due to gravity (in m/s2). A typical G-Factor, often referred to as ‘GF’, is defined as the ratio of
the centrifugal force experienced by the rotating cast metal divided by its weight as

(5)

where, N refers to the rotational speed (in rev/min) of the mold. If the “GF” is too low resulting
in smaller values of N, the liquid metal (cast metal) will rain inside the cavity rather than
remaining forced against the internal wall of the horizontal rotating mold during the upper half
of the circular path. In general, values of ‘GF’ in the range of 60 to 80 are found to be
appropriate in horizontal centrifugal casting, although the same also depends on the type of
material being cast.

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 Exercises
1. A true centrifugal casting operation is to be performed in a horizontal configuration to
make cast iron pipe sections. The sections will have a length 42.0 in, outside diameter
8.0 in, and wall thickness ¼ 0.50 in. If the rotational speed of the pipe 500 rev/min,
determine the G-factor. Is the operation likely to be successful?
2. True centrifugal casting is performed horizontally to make large diameter copper tube
sections. The tubes have a length 1.0 m, diameter 0.25 m, and wall thickness 15 mm. (a)
If the rotational speed of the pipe 700 rev/min, determine the G-factor on the molten
metal. (b) Is the rotational speed sufficient to avoid ‘‘rain?’’ (c) What volume of molten
metal must be poured into the mold to make the casting if solidification shrinkage and
contraction after solidification are considered? Solidification shrinkage for copper 4.5%,
and solid thermal contraction 7.5%.

3. If a true centrifugal casting operation were to be performed in a space station circling the
Earth, how would weightlessness affect the process?

4. A horizontal true centrifugal casting process is used to make aluminum rings with the
following dimensions:length 5 cm, outside diameter 65 cm, and inside diameter¼60 cm.
(a)Determine the rotational speed that will provide a G-factor 60. (b) Suppose that the
ring were made out of steel instead of aluminum. If the rotational speed computed in part
(a) were used in the steel casting operation, determine: the G-factor and (c) centrifugal
force per square meter (Pa)on the mold wall. (d) Would this rotational speed result in a
successful operation?

Applications
Pipes for water, gas and sewage; bearing bushes; cylinder liners; piston rings, paper
making rollers; clutch plates; pulleys.

Advantages of Centrifugal Casting Process

1. Flexibility in casting composition
2. Wide range of available product / metallurgical characteristics
3. Can form very large parts
4. Centre core is not required for making a hole or pipe
5. Employment of gates and risers is not required (100% casting yield in many cases)
6. Relatively very light impurities move inwards towards centre which can be removed easily
7. Fettling costs are reduced. Little scrap generated and cost of production is less

Disadvantages of Centrifugal Casting Process

1. Suitable for only axial symmetrical components
2. More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
3. Secondary machining is often required for inner diameter
4. Centrifugal castings require huge investments
5. Skilled labours are to be employed for this process
6. Inaccurate internal diameter
7. Long lead time possible

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 Module 5: Additive Manufacturing
Why It Matters
Additive manufacturing is still an emerging technology, but taking advantage of its particular use
cases, businesses can use it to slash costs and timelines — and benefit customers.

What is additive manufacturing?

Additive manufacturing is the process of creating an object by building it one layer at a time. It is the
opposite of subtractive manufacturing, in which an object is created by cutting away at a solid block of
material until the final product is complete.
Technically, additive manufacturing can refer to any process where a product is created by building
something up, such as molding, but it typically refers to 3-D printing.
Additive manufacturing was first used to develop prototypes in the 1980s — these objects were not
usually functional. This process was known as rapid prototyping because it allowed people to create a
scale model of the final object quickly, without the typical setup process and costs involved in creating
a prototype. As additive manufacturing improved, its uses expanded to rapid tooling, which was used
to create molds for final products. By the early 2000s, additive manufacturing was being used to create
functional products. More recently, companies like Boeing and General Electric have begun using
additive manufacturing as integral parts of their business processes.
How it works
To create an object using additive manufacturing, someone must first create a design. This is typically
done using computer aided design, or CAD, software, or by taking a scan of the object someone wants
to print. Software then translates the design into a layer by layer framework for the additive
manufacturing machine to follow. This is sent to the 3-D printer, which begins creating the object
immediately. You go directly from digital to physical, which is quite a change. Additive
manufacturing uses any number of materials, from polymers, metals, and ceramics to foams, gels, and
even biomaterials. You can use pretty much anything As long as you find a way to locally join two
parts, you can 3-D print it.
The actual process of additive manufacturing can be done in a number of ways, all of which can take
several hours to several days, depending on the object’s size. One common method uses a nozzle to
lay successive layers of material on top of each other until the final product is complete. Another
process uses powders, typically made from metal. This works by filling a bed with powder, and
melting the parts of the powder that you want to form a solid part layer by layer. After you do this, all
the loose powder falls away from your final part. This is usually done using lasers or electron beams,
but another technique involves using a polymer to adhere layers of powder together. The part is then
placed in a furnace where the plastic melts away and the powders sinter together, forming the final
part.

Advantages of additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing has some distinct benefits. With traditional manufacturing, the entire supply
chain can take months and require an investment — sometimes millions or billions of dollars — that
can only be recouped by high-volume production. With additive manufacturing, much of the supply
chain’s intermediate steps are removed. “The speed at which you can get to a single part is much
faster, since people can send a design directly from their computer to the 3-D printer.
Manufacturing something additively also makes it possible to create objects with functionally-graded
materials — meaning they can have different materials on the inside and outside. “Imagine you want
something that has high conductivity, but also is abrasion resistant. On the outside, you have the

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abrasion-resistant materials, like ceramics, and on the inside, you have the conductive materials, like
metals. Creating something like that is quite difficult to do with conventional manufacturing.
The two biggest advantages to additive manufacturing are creating complex geometries and producing
small lot sizes. With additive manufacturing, you produce — layer by layer — pretty much any
geometry you want to create. You can create 3-D entities that are much more complex and have
different material properties. With subtractive manufacturing, some objects are too small or have too
awkward an angle to subtract materials in the desired way. Additive manufacturing eliminates that
barrier. This also means that manufacturers can eliminate weight from an object. This is particular
important in the aerospace and automobile industries, where weight can affect the functionality of a
final product.
Additive manufacturing also makes it easier to create small amounts of something. With traditional
manufacturing, setup costs mean producing small lots is not cost effective. But with additive
manufacturing, setup costs are mostly eliminated, so creating just a handful of objects becomes more
reasonable. This makes customizing products, like prosthetics or implants, easier, and could result in
better outcomes for patients. Hearing aids, which are customized for each person, are almost entirely
additively manufactured.

Issues with additive manufacturing

Additive manufacturing has its share of challenges, too. Additive manufacturing machines are
expensive, sometimes hundreds of thousands of dollars. Using them to create large lot sizes takes
longer than with traditional manufacturing. And many objects that are additively manufactured require
some post-processing to clean and smooth out rough edges, among other things. One of the biggest
challenges, though, is making sure that your final part has good properties. From a material science
perspective, that is probably the biggest challenge of additive manufacturing. How do you reduce the
number of defects that could form?
Metal, its properties, and the process used to create the object can all have an effect. “If powders don’t
quite sinter together, it forms defects that lead to failure. You can get residual stress based on how you
process your metal, and there can be some internal strain on the material that can lead to the part
wanting to naturally bend.”
Defects in additively manufactured objects is not unique to metals. Given the relative newness of
additive manufacturing, researchers are still trying to understand the many different aspects of it, how
the materials work together, and how to decrease the likelihood of defects in final parts.

Additive manufacturing versus conventional manufacturing

Despite all the advantages of additive manufacturing, traditional manufacturing being replaced is
almost impossible.
That is because, aside from specific use cases, traditional manufacturing is still faster and less
expensive. This is especially true when creating granular products. The smaller the layer size, the
slower the manufacturing. While the initial units are cheaper and faster when made with additive
manufacturing, in the long run, printing out every unit would take longer.
For some companies, though, using additive manufacturing is worth it. Right now, whenever we see
small lot sizes and high demand for functionality, that’s the sweet spot for additive manufacturing.
manufacturers believe there is a case to be made for a hybrid model of manufacturing. In this situation,
the initial products would be additively manufactured, but traditional manufacturing would take over
once the lot sizes increased to a certain point. That would continue while the product was in high
demand, but instead of creating large amounts of excess inventory, companies could revert back to
additive manufacturing to meet demand as needed once it slowed.

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This end of product-life use of additive manufacturing could be useful even for companies that have
never used the technology before. Companies like Caterpillar, which ships replacement parts within 24
hours, could have 3-D printers set up at strategic locations to print and deliver those parts instead of
keeping inventory stocked at those locations. Mercedes, which says it will always supply spare parts
for any car, could 3-D print the parts for a 1928 SSK for significantly less than it would cost to
produce them traditionally.

Possible industries for disruption

There are a few industries where 3-D printing parts or products makes more sense than manufacturing
them traditionally. Aerospace, racecars, and the medical field are all industries where additive
manufacturing can make inroads.
That is because they are all industries where function is more important than price. Or where small lot
sizes or customization makes it less expensive to manufacture an object additively than traditionally.
Many other businesses may have uses for additive manufacturing. According to Roemer, without the
setup costs of creating a new product, entrepreneurs can quickly additively manufacture objects or
parts to see if they work as needed. If they don’t, they can iterate and try again, all using an additive
manufacturing machine, until they find a product that does. They may not even need their own
machine to do this — companies like UPS have set up 3-D printing machines at various locations that
can be used by anyone.
Established businesses can also evaluate whether additive manufacturing can be part of their business
models. If a company produces products that are specialized or would benefit from the ability to have
complex geometries, it will have to determine whether additive manufacturing would improve its
products. Companies like Adidas are using additive manufacturing to create sneaker soles at speeds
that may make it suitable for mass customization.

Stereolithography
• One of the most important additive manufacturing technologies currently available.
• The first ever commercial RP systems were resin-based systems commonly called stereolithography
or SLA.
• The resin is a liquid photosensitive polymer that cures or hardens Stereolithography when exposed to
ultraviolet radiation.
• This technique involves the curing or solidification of a liquid photosensitive polymer through the
use of the irradiation light source.
• The source supplies the energy that is needed to induce a chemical reaction (curing reaction),
bonding large no of small molecules and forming a highly cross-linked polymer.

STL File
Advantages
(i) Provides a simple method of representing 3D CAD data
(ii) A de facto standard and has been used by most CAD systems and RP systems
(iii) It can provide small and accurate files for data transfer for certain shapes
Disadvantages
(i) The STL file is many times larger than the original CAD data file
(ii) The geometry flaws exist in the STL file
(iii) The subsequent slicing of large STL files can take many hours

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 Facts about STL
• Each layer is 0.076 mm to 0.50 mm (0.003in to 0.020 in.) thick– Thinner layers provide better
resolution and more intricate shapes; but processing time is longer
• Starting materials are liquid monomers
• Polymerization occurs on exposure to UV light produced by laser scanning beam
– Scanning speeds ~ 500 to 2500 mm/s

Part Build Time in STL

𝐴𝑖
Ti = + 𝑇𝑑
𝑣𝐷
where
Ti = time to complete layer i
𝐴𝑖 = area of layer i;
𝑣 = average scanning speed of the laser beam at the surface
D = diameter of the “spot size” assumed circular;
𝑇𝑑 = delay time between layers to reposition the worktable

Once the Ti values have been determined for all layers, then the build cycle time is:

where
Tc = STL build cycle time
nl = number of layers used to approximate the part

Time to build a part ranges from one hour for small parts of simple geometry up to several dozen
hours for complex parts

Summary
Other uses of additive manufacturing will continue to present themselves — some companies are
already experimenting with additive manufacturing to make everything from houses to food —
especially as costs come down and the actual manufacturing speeds up. In the meantime, industry
leaders are not the only ones interested in additive manufacturing developments; a community of
hobbyists has emerged, as well. While commercial additive manufacturing machines can be large and
expensive, 3-D printing companies are increasingly making smaller, desktop-sized 3-D printers that
hobbyists can buy for only a few hundred to a few thousand dollars.

Exercise
A prototype of a tube with a square cross-section is to be fabricated using stereolithography. The
outside dimension of the square = 100 mm and the inside dimension = 90 mm (wall thickness = 5 mm
except at corners). The height of the tube (z-direction) = 80 mm. Layer thickness = 0.10 mm. The
diameter of the laser beam (“spot size”) = 0.25 mm, and the beam is moved across the surface of the
photopolymer at a velocity of 500 mm/s. Compute an estimate for the time required to build the part, if
10s are lost each layer to lower the height of the platform that holds the part. Neglect the time for
postcuring.

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 Module 6: JIGS AND FIXTURES
The successful running of any mass production depends upon the interchangeability to facilitate easy
assembly and reduction of unit cost. Mass production methods demand a fast and easy method of
positioning work for accurate operations on it. Jigs and fixtures are production tools used to accurately
manufacture duplicate and interchangeable parts. Jigs and fixtures are specially designed so that large
numbers of components can be machined or assembled identically, and to ensure interchangeability of
components.

JIGS
It is a work holding device that holds, supports and locates the workpiece and guides the cutting tool
for a specific operation. Jigs are usually fitted with hardened steel bushings for guiding or other cutting
tools. a jig is a type of tool used to control the location and/or motion of another tool. A jig's primary
purpose is to provide repeatability, accuracy, and interchangeability in the manufacturing of products.
A device that does both functions (holding the work and guiding a tool) is called a jig. An example of
a jig is when a key is duplicated, the original is used as a jig so the new key can have the same path as
the old one .

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FIXTURES
It is a work holding device that holds, supports and locates the workpiece for a specific operation but
does not guide the cutting tool. It provides only a reference surface or a device. What makes a fixture
unique is that each one is built to fit a particular part or shape. The main purpose of a fixture is to
locate and in some cases hold a workpiece during either a machining operation or some other
industrial process. A jig differs from a fixture in that it guides the tool to its correct position in addition
to locating and supporting the workpiece. Examples: Vises, chucks

Differences between jigs and fixtures

Jigs Fixtures
1 It is a work holding device that holds, It is a work holding device that holds,
supports and locates the workpiece and supports and locates the workpiece for a
guides the cutting tool for a specific specific operation but does not guide the
operation cutting tool

2 Jigs are not clamped to the drill press Fixtures should be securely clamped to the
table unless large diameters to be drilled table of the machine upon which the work is
and there is a necessity to move the jig to done
bring one each bush directly under the drill.

3 The jigs are special tools particularly in Fixtures are specific tools used particularly in
drilling, reaming, tapping and boring milling machine, shapers and slotting
operation. machine.
4 Gauge blocks are not necessary. Gauge blocks may be provided for effective
handling.
5 Lighter in construction. Heavier in construction.

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 Advantages of Jigs and Fixtures
Productivity:
Jigs and fixtures increases the productivity by eliminating the individual marking, positioning and
frequent checking. The operation time is also reduced due to increase in speed, feed and depth of cut
because of high clamping rigidity.
Interchangeability and Quality:
Jigs and fixtures facilitate the production of articles in large quantities with high degree of accuracy,
uniform quality and interchangeability at a competitive cost .
Skill Reduction:
There is no need for skillful setting of work on tool. Jigs and fixtures makes possible to employ
unskilled or semi skilled machine operator to make savings in labour cost.
Cost Reduction:
Higher production, reduction in scrap, easy assembly and savings in labour cost results in ultimate
reduction in unit cost.

Fundamental principles of Jigs and Fixtures design

Locating Points: Good facilities should be provided for locating the work. The article to be machined
must be easily inserted and quickly taken out from the jig so that no time is wasted in placing the
workpiece in position to perform operations. The position of workpiece should be accurate with
respect to tool guiding in the jig or setting elements in fixture.
Fool Proof: The design of jigs and fixtures should be such that it would not permit the workpiece or
the tool to inserted in any position other than the correct one.
Reduction of Idle Time: Design of Jigs and Fixtures should be such that the process, loading, clamping
and unloading time of the workpiece takes minimum as far as possible.
Weight of Jigs and Fixtures: It should be easy to handle, smaller in size and low cost in regard to
amount of material used without sacrificing rigidity and stiffness.
Jigs Provided With Feet: Jigs sometimes are provided with feet so that it can be placed on the table of
the machine.
Materials for Jigs and Fixtures: Usually made of hardened materials to avoid frequent damage and to
resist wear. Example- MS, Cast iron, Diesteel, CS, HSS.
Clamping Device: It should be as simple as possible without sacrificing effectiveness. The strength of
clamp should be such that not only to hold the workpiece firmly in place but also to take the strain of
the cutting tool without springing when designing the jigs and fixtures.

Essential features of Jigs and Fixtures

1. Reduction of idle time – Should enable easy clamping and unloading such that idle time is
minimum
2. Cleanliness of machining process – Design must be such that not much time is wasted in
cleaning of scarfs, burrs, chips etc.
3. Replaceable part or standardization – The locating and supporting surfaces as far as possible
should be replaceable, should be standardized so that their interchangeable manufacture is
possible
4. Provision for coolant – Provision should be there so that the tool is cooled and the swarfs and
chips are washed away
5. Hardened surfaces – All locating and supporting surfaces should be hardened materials as far
as conditions permit so that they are not quickly worn out and accuracy is retained for a long
time
6. Inserts and pads – Should always be riveted to those faces of the clamps which will come in
contact with finished surfaces of the workpiece so that they are not spoilt
7. Fool-proofing – Pins and other devices of simple nature incorporated in such a position that
they will always spoil the placement of the component or hinder the fitting of the cutting tool
until the latter are in correct position

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 8. Economic soundness – Equipment should be economically sound, cost of design and
manufacture should be in proportion to the quantity and price of producer
9. Easy manipulation – It should be as light in weight as possible and easy to handle so that
workman is not subjected to fatigue, should be provided with adequate lift aids
10. Initial location – Should be ensured that workpiece is not located on more than 3 points in
anyone plane test to avoid rocking, spring loading should be done
11. Position of clamps – Clamping should occur directly above the points supporting the
workpiece to avoid distortion and springing
12. Clearance – Sufficient amount of clearance should be provided around the work so that
operator’s hands can easily enter the body for placing the workpiece and any variations of
work can be accommodated
13. Ejecting devices – Proper ejecting devices should be incorporated in the body to push the
workpiece out after operation
14. Rigidity and stability – It should remain perfectly rigid and stable during operation. Provision
should be made for proper positioning and rigidly holding the jigs and fixtures
15. Safety – The design should assure perfect safety of the operator

General rules for designing

1. Compare the cost of production of work with present tools with the expected cost of
production, using the tool to be made and see that the cost of buildings is not in excess of
expected gain.
2. Decide upon locating points and outline clamping arrangement
3. Make all clamping and binding devices as quick acting as possible
4. Make the jig fool proof
5. Make some locating points adjustable
6. Avoid complicated clamping arrangements
7. Round all corners
8. Provide handles wherever these will make handling easy
9. Provide abundant clearance
10. Provide holes on escapes for chips
11. Locate clamps so that they will be in best position to resist the pressure of the cutting tool
when at work
12. Place all clamps as nearly as possible opposite some bearing point of the work to avoid
springing action
13. Before using in the shop, test all jigs as soon as made

Materials Used
Jigs and Fixtures are made of variety of materials, some of which can be hardened to resist wear.
Materials generally used:
1. High speed Steel: Cutting tools like drills, reamers and milling cutters.
2. Die steels: Used for press tools, contain 1% carbon, 0.5 to 1% tungsten and less quantities of
silicon and manganese.
3. Carbon steels: Used for standard cutting tools.

4. Collet steels: Spring steels containing 1% carbon, 0.5% manganese and less of silicon .
5. Non shrinking tool steels: High carbon or high chromium, Very little distortion during heat
treatment. Used widely for fine, intricate press tools.
6. Nickel chrome steels: Used for gears.
7. High tensile steels: Used for fasteners like high tensile screws
8. Mild steel: Used in most part of Jigs and Fixtures Cheapest material Contains less than 0.3%
carbon
9. Cast Iron: Used for odd shapes to some machining and laborious fabrication

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 CI usage requires a pattern for casting, Contains more than 2% carbon, Has self lubricating
properties, Can withstand vibrations and suitable for base
10. Nylon and Fiber: Used for soft lining for clamps to damage to workpiece due to clamping
pressure
11. Phosphur bronze: used for nuts as have high tensile strength, Used for nuts of the lead screw

Factors to be considered for design of Jigs and Fixtures

1. Component-
Design to be studied carefully Ensure work is performed in a proper sequence, maximum operations
should be performed on a machine in single setting
2. Capacity of the machine-
Careful consideration to be performed on type and capacity of machine.
3. Production requirements-
Design to be made on basis of actual production requirements. Then comes decision on manual and
automatic tooling arrangements.
4. Location-
• Location should ensure equal distribution of forces throughout all sequence of operation.
• Location should be hard resistant, wear resistant and high degree of accuracy.
• Movement of workpiece should be restricted.
• Should be fool proofed to avoid improper locations of the workpiece.
• Should facilitate easy and quick loading of workpiece.
• Redundant locators should be avoided.
• Sharp corners must be avoided.
• At least one datum surface should be established.
5. Loading and Unloading arrangements-
There should be adequate clearance for loading and unloading. Hence process becomes quick and
easy, Size variation must be accepted, It should be hardened material and non sticky.
6. Clamping arrangements-
Quick acting clamps must be used as far as possible, the clamping should not cause any deformation to
the workpiece, It should always be arranged directly above points supporting
the work, Power driven clamps are favoured as they are quick acting, controllable, reliable and
operated without causing any fatigue to the operators

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