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4.

What are the effects of alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine on the developing embryo/
Lesson 1 : Pre-Natal Period fetus?
In unit, module 1 you met Naschille and Kenn. You were asked what they were before they
have become what and who they are at present. This is the concern of this lesson pre- Human life begins at conception
natal or antenatal development. An unborn baby of 8 weeks is not essentially different form one of 18 weeks or 28 weeks.
From conception the zygote, the embryo and fetus are undeniably human life.
Life Before Birth Human life begins form the moment of conception. All that we have and all that we are
The development of the unborn child have been there at the moment of conception@ The fact that you have brown eyes and
Abortion advocates try to dehumanize the developing baby in the womb by speaking black, straight or curly hair and the fact that you will turn bald at age 50 have been there
of the child as “a blob of tissue” or “uterine contents.” But ultra-sound images, prenatal already at the moment of conception. What were added in the process of development is
surgery and other advance in obstetrics are shattering the blob-of-tissue myth. nutrition.
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these profound observations after his “The Silent Scream.” The mother submitted herself to a medical doctor for abortion in her
profound encounter with a tiny unborn baby boy: “Eleven years ago while I was giving an third month of pregnancy. When the abortionist inserted his scalpel Into the woman’s womb
anesthetic for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy (at two months gestation), I was handled what to crush the head of the fetus, very clearly in that film, the fetus had his/her mouth open
I believe was the smallest living human ever seen. The embryo sac was a tiny human male like he was screaming for help as he evaded the deadly scalpel of the abortionist. That’s
swimming extremely vigorously in the amniotic fluid, while attached to the wall by the why the film was given the title “The Silent Scream”. This only means that the developing
umbilical cord. being in the womb is a human being not just a conglomeration of cells or tissues.
This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and toes. It Based on these facts, it is wrong to do abortion. The womb is supposed to be safest of
was transparent, as regards the skin, and the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to all places for human development. Unfortunately, however, with the scourge of abortion, it
the ends of the Fingers. “The baby was extremely alive and swam about the sac has become a tomb!
approximately on time per second, with a natural swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human did
not look all like the photos and drawings and models of ‘embryos’ which I have seen, nor The development that takes place 3 stages proves that the developing embryo in a
did it look like a few embryos I have been able to observe since then, obviously because mother’s womb is truly a human being.
this one was alive.
“When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately lost its life and took on the The Stages of Pre-natal Development
appearance of what is accepted as the appearance of an embryo at this stage (blunt It may be good to watch the on High Tech Photographs of Fatal development/ Pro-life
extremities, etc.) Anti-abortion at YouTube before you read these notes on stages of pre-natal development.
It is my opinion that if the lawmakers and people realize that this very vigorous life is 1) Germinal Period (First 2 week after conception) –
present, it is possible that abortion would be found more objectionable than euthanasia.” a) creation of the zygote
The point at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby- eight weeks after b) continued cell division and
conception- is during the period that a majority of abortionists describe as most as c) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
desirable for performing an abortion. The following are the details of development during this period:
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and female (egg)
Analysis
chromosome unite
1. Is it more reasonable to believe that which is developing in the mother’s womb is b. 36 hours-the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2); 2 cells
human being?
c. 48 hours (2days) – 2 cell become 4 cells
2. What are proofs that which is developing in the mother’s womb is a living human
being?
d. 72 hours (3days) – 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16-32 cells
3. Has any realization for, today’s discussion changed your stand on abortion? e. 96 hours (4days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells
Explain your answer. f. 4-5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus 3) Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and development
h. 11-15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted continue dramatically during this period. The details of the developmental process
in it (implantation) are as follow (Santrock 2002):
a. 3 months after conception – fetus is about 3 inches long and weigh about
- the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are 1 ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens and
formed. closes its mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids, nose,
- blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops during the germinal period, develops chin can now be distinguished and also the upper arms lower arms,
later into the embryo. hands, and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identifies as male or
- trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops also during the germinal period, female.
later provides nutrition and support for the embryo (Nelson, Textbook of Paediatrics, b. 4 months after conception- fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7
17th ed., 2004). ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; pre-natal reflexes
are stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first time.
2) Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) – the name of the cells, zygote, c. 5 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close to
become embryo. The following development take place: pound; structures of skin (fingernails, toenails) have formed; fetus is more
a. cell differentiation intensifies active.
b. life-support systems for the embryo develop and d. 6 months after conception – fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one
c. organs appear and half pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer of
head covers the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular movements
occur.
As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cell are formed.
e. 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3
The embryo’s endoderm - the inner layer of cells, develops into the digestive and
pounds
respiratory systems.
The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts: f. 8 and 9 months after conception – fetus grows longer and gains
substantial weight, about 4 ponds
1. ectoderm - is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system, sensory
receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin parts (nails, hair).
2. Mesoderm - middle layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular,
excretory and reproductive systems. This process of organ formation during the two Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
months of pre-natal development is organogenesis. Teratology - field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen is
that which courses birth defects. It comes from the Greek word “tera” which means
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo develop “monster”.
rapidly. These life-support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amnion.
1. placenta - life-support systems that consist of a disk-shaped group of tissues in which Below are clusters of hazards to pre-natal development:
small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine nut do not join. 1. Prescription and non-prescription drugs- These include prescription as well as non-
2. umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connect the baby to the prescription drugs. Antibiotic is an example of a prescription drug that can be harmful.
placenta. Examples of harmful non-prescription drugs are diet pills, aspirin, and coffee.
3. amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the developing Remember the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took in, a
embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems develop from the fertilized and not tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise to several deformed babies.
from the mother’s body. Cocaine exposure during pre-natal development is associated with reduced birth weight,
length and head circumference (Hurt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002), impaired motor
development (Arendt, et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) impaired – information
processing (Singer et al, 1999 cited by Santrock, 2002) and poor attention skills This also applies in the first months after birth as shown in the earlier maturation of
(Bandstra, 2000 cited by Santrock, 2002) muscular control of the trunk and arms, followed by that of the hands and fingers. When
referring to motor skills from the center of the body outward.
2. Psychoactive drugs – These include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such as
marijuana, cocaine and heroin. Height and Weight
Researchers found that pregnant women who drank more caffeinated coffee were more • It’s normal for newborn babies to drop 5 to 10 percent of their body weight within a
likely to have preterm deliveries and new-borns with lower birthweight compared to their couple of weeks of birth. That is due to the baby’s adjustment to neonatal feeding.
counter-parts who did not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et al, 1999 quoted by Once they adjust to sucking, swallowing and digesting, they grow rapidly.
Santrock, 20020). • Breastfed babies are typically heavier than bottle-fed babies through the first six
months. After six months, breastfed babies usually weigh less than bottle-fed
3. Environmental hazards – These include radiation in jobsites and X-rays, babies.
environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and • In general, an infant’s increases by about 30 percent in the first five months.
bath tubs. • A baby’s weight usually triples during the first year but slows down in the second
Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are higher among the offspring of year of life.
fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985
• Low percentages are not a cause for alarm as long as infants progress along a
cited by Santrock, 2002). Radiation from X-rays also affect the developing embryo and
natural curve of steady development.
fetus, with the most dangerous time being the first several weeks after conception when
women do not yet know that they are (Santrock, 2002)
Brain Development
 Among the most dramatic changes in the brain in the first two years of life are the
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German Measles), syphilis, genital helpers,
spreading connections of dendrites to each other. Remember the neurons,
AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age, (too early or too late, beyond 30)
dendrites, axon, and synapses? You discussed them in your General Psychology
A rubella (German measles) in 1964-65 resulted in 30,000 pre-natal and neonatal class. (You may wish to review on them.)
(newborn) deaths and more than 20,000 affected infants were born with malformations,
including mental retardation, Blindness, deafness, and heart problems (Santrock, 2002).
Myelination or myelinization, the process by which the axons are covered and
insulted by layers of fat cells, begins prenatally and continues after birth. The
process of myelination or myelinization increase the speed at which information
Lesson 2 : Infancy and Toddlerhood travels the nervous system.
We shall continue to trace the developmental process by following the infant or the  At birth, the newborn’s brain is about 25 percent of its adult weight. By the
baby who is just born up to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal second birthday, the brain is about 75% of its adult weight.
or antenatal stage is infancy which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and
 Shortly after birth, a baby’s brain produces trillions more connections
toddlerhood span the first two years of life.
between neurons than it can possibly use. The brain eliminates
connections that are seldom or never used (Santrock, 2002). The infants’
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns brain is literally waiting for experiences to determine how connections are
Cephalocaudal trend - the postnatal growth from conception to 5 months when the head made.
grows more than the body. This Cephalocaudal trend of growth that applies to the  A study on rats conducted by Mark Rosenweig in 1960 revealed that the
development of the fetus also applies in the first months after birth. The same pattern brains of rats that grew u in the enriched environment developed better
occurs in the head area because the top parts such as the jaw. than the brains of animals reared in standard or isolated conditions. The
The Proximodistal trend is the pre-natal growth from 5 months to birth when the fetus brains of the ‘enriched’ animals weighed more, had thicker layers, had
grown from the inside of the body outwards. more neuronal connections and had higher levels of neurochemical
activity. Such finding implies that enriching the lives of infants who lives in
impoverished environments can produce positive changes in their
development (Santrock, 2002). Tonic Neck Reflex: The tonic neck reflex is demonstrated in infants who are
Depressed brain activity has been found in children who grew up in a depresses placed on their abdomens. whichever side the child’s head is facing, the limbs on
environment (Circhetti, 2001, cited by Santrock, 2002). that side will straighten, while the opposite limbs will curl .

Motor development Gross Motor Skills


Along this aspect of motor development, infants and toddlers begin from reflexes, to gross
motor skills and fine motor skills. Study the Figure below. See how you developed in your gross motor skills.

Reflexes It is always a source of excitement for parents to witness dramatic changes in the infants
• The newborn has some basic reflexes which are, of course automatic, and serve first year of life. This dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to even lift
as survival mechanisms before they have the opportunity to learn. Many reflexes dramatic motor development is shown in babies unable to even lift their heads to being
which are present at birth will generally subside within a few months as the baby able to grab things off the cabinet, to chase the ball and to walk away from parent.
grows and matures.
• There are many different reflexes. Some of the most common reflexes that babies
have are:

Sucking Reflex: The sucking reflex is initiated when something touches the roof of
an infant’s mouth. Infants have a strong sucking reflex which helps to ensure they
can latch unto a bottle or breast. They sucking reflex is very strong in some infants
and they may need to suck on a pacifier for comfort.

Rooting Reflex: The rooting reflex is most evident when an infant’s cheek is
Age Developmental milestones
stroked. The baby responds by turning his or her head in the direction of the touch
and opening their mouth for feeding.

Gripping Reflex: Babies will grasp anything that is placed in their palm. The
strength of this grip is strong, and most babies can support their entire weight in • Rolls over front to back and back to front
0-6 months
their grip. • Sits with support and then independently
Curling Reflex: When the inner sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant respond
by curling his or her toes. When the outer sole of a baby’s foot is stroked, the infant
will respond by spreading out their toes.
6-12 months • Crawls forwards on belly
Startle/ Moro Reflex: Infants will respond to sudden sounds or movements by • Assumes a seated position unaided
throwing their arms and legs out, and throwing their heads back. Most infants will • Creeps on hands and knees
usually cry startled and proceed to pull their limbs into their bodies. • Transitions into different positions: sitting, all fours, lying on tummy
• Pulls self to stand
Galant Reflex: The gallant reflex is shown when an infant’s middle or lower back is • Walks while holding onto furniture
stroked next to the spinal cord. The baby will respond by curving this or her body • Takes 2-3 steps without support
toward the side which is being stroked.
• Rolls a ball in imitation of an adult

• Able to walk up stairs while holding an object


• Walks backward toe-heel
• Sits, crawls, walks • Jumps forward 10 times without falling
• Still has wide gait but walking/running is less clumsy • Skips forwards after demonstration
18 months • Pushes against a ball (does not actually kick it) • Hangs from a bar for at least 5 seconds
• Steps forward with leg on same side as throwing arm
when throwing a ball  Catches a small ball using hands
5 years only
• Walks smoothly and turns corners
• Begins running
• Is able to pull or carry a toy while walking
• Climbs onto/down from furniture without assistance  Runs lightly on toes
• Walks up and down steps with support  Able to walk on a balance beam
2 years • Picks up toys from the floor without falling over  Able to skip using a skipping rope
 Can cover 2 metres when hopping
 Demonstrates mature throwing and catching patterns
6 years  Mature (refined) jumping skills
• Imitates standing on one foot
• Imitates simple bilateral movements of limbs (e.g. arms up together)
• Climbs jungle gym and ladders
• Pedals a tricycle
• Walks up/down stairs alternating feet Fine Motor Skills
• Jumps in place with two feet together - refined use of the small muscles controlling the hand, fingers and thumb. The
• Able to walk on tip toes development of these skills allows one to be able to complete tasks such as writing,
3 years • Catches using body drawing, and buttoning.
The ability to exhibit fine motor skills involves activities that involve precise eye-hand
coordination. The development of reaching and grasping becomes more refined during the
first two years of life. Initially, infants show only crude shoulder and elbow movements, but
• Stands on one foot for up to 5 seconds later they show wrist movements, hand rotation and coordination of the thumb and fore-
• Kicks a ball forwards finger.
• Throws a ball overarm
• Catches a ball that has been bounced Sensory and Perceptual Development
• Runs around obstacles The newborn senses the world into which he/she is born through his/her senses of vision,
hearing, touch, taste and smell. Ideally, as he/she advances physically his/her sensory and
• Able to walk on a line
perceptual abilities also develop.
• Able to hop on one foot
What are some research finding regarding newborns’ visual perception? Can newborns
4 years • Jumps over an object and lands with both feet together
see?
• The newborn’s vision is about 10 to 30 times lower than normal adult vision. By 6 • Intermodal perception is the ability to relate, connect and integrate information
months of age, vision becomes better and by the first birthday, the infant’s vision about two or more sensory modalities such as vision and hearing.
approximates that of an adult. (Banks & Salapatek, 1983 cited by Santrock, 2002) • In a study conducted by Spelke and Owsley (1979), it was found out that as early
• Infants look at different things for different lengths of time. In an experiment as at 3 ½ months old, infants looked more at their mother they also heard her voice
conducted by Robert Franz (1963 cited by Santrock, 2002), it was found out that and longer at their father when they also heard his voice.
infants preferred to look at pattern such as faces and concentric circles rather than
at color or brightness. Based on these results, it is likely that “pattern perception
has an innate basis” (Santrock, 2002). Among the first few things that babies learn Lesson 3 : Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers
to recognize is their mother’s face, as mother feeds nurses them.
Cognitive development in infancy refers to development in the way a baby thinks. This
Can newborn hear? includes his/her language, communication and exploration skills. Examples of cognitive
activities include paying attention, remembering learning to talk, interacting with toys and
• The sense of hearing in an infant develops much before the birth of the baby. When identifying faces.
in the womb, the baby hears his/her mother’s heartbeats, the grumbling of his/her
stomach, the mother’s voice and music. How soothing it must have been for you to
listen to your mother’s lullaby. Sensorimotor stage
• Infants’ sensory thresholds are somewhat higher than those of adult which means  Analysis of the 6 sub stages of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s cognitive
that stimulus must be louder to be heard by a newborn than by an adult. development shows that development begins from reflexive behaviors to more
refined and more coordinated activities. Cognitive developments of infants
Can newborns differentiate odors? evolves in orientation form becoming focused on themselves to becoming object or
• In an experiment conducted by MacFarlane (1975) “young infants who were world-oriented, form one that action-based involve much of coordination of
breastfed showed a clear preference for smelling their mother’s breast pad when schemes to one involving intentionality, novelty and curiosity and from a thinking
they were 6 days old. This preference did not show when the babies were only two that purely sensorimotor to a symbolic one.
days old. This shows that it requires several days of experience to recognize their
mother’s breast pad odor. Learning and Remembering Do
infants learn and remember?
Can newborn feel pain? Do they respond to touch? Yes! Pavlov’s classical conditioning and Skinner’s operant conditioning have been proven
to apply to infants. We’ll ask you to research on researches that prove this. All of us
experience infantile amnesia, the inability to recall events that happened when we were
• They do feel pain. Newborn males show a higher level of cortisol (an indicator of
young (Spear, 1979). Generally, we can remember little or nothing that has happened to us
stress) after a circumcision than prior to the surgery (Taddio, et al 1997 cited by
before the age of about 5 years, and it is extremely rare for someone to recall many
Santrock, 2002).
memories of significant events (e.g. birth of sibling or the death of a parent; Fivush and
Hammond, 1991). For example, some adults have recalled their own hospitalization or the
Can newborns distinguish the different tastes? birth of a sibling as far back as age 2 years, and the death of a parent or a family move may
• In a study conducted with babies only two hour old, babies made different facial be called from as far back as age 3years (Usher and Neisser, 1993)
expressions when they tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions (Rosentein and
Oster, 1988, cited by Santrock, 2002). Language Development
From day one, infants appear to be programmed to tune in to their linguistic environment
Do infants relate information through several senses? In short, are infants capable of with specific goal of acquiring language. Infants clearly have remarkably acute language
intermodal perception?
learning abilities even from an early age (Marcus, Vijayan. Bandi Rao and Vishton, 1999; Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Pinker, 1997, 1999 cited by Sternbeg Robert 2003).
Noam Chomsky (1965, 1972), noted linguist, claims that humans have an innate language
Within the first years of life, we human seem to progress through the following stages in
producing language (Stenberg, 2003) acquisition device (LAD). This LAD is a “metaphorical organ that is responsible for
language learning. Just as a heart is deigned to pump blood this language acquisition
• Cooing, which comprises largely vowel sounds
• Babbling, which comprises consonant as well as vowel sounds; to most people’s device is pre-programmed to learn language, whatever the language community children
ears, the babbling of infants growing up among speakers from different language find themselves in.”
groups sound very similar
• One-word utterances; these utterances are limited in both the vowels and the
consonants they utilize (Ingrams, 1999 cited by Sternberg, 2003)
• Two-word utterances and telegraphic speech The Formative Years
• Basic Adult sentence structure (present by about age 4 years) with continuing
vocabulary acquisition Much has been said about the importance of the first three years in human development.
They are so-called the formative years that is why, parents and other caregivers at this
Infant utters his/her first word-followed by one or two more, and soon after, yet a few stage of human development play as significant role in the development of infants and
toddlers.
more. The infant uses these one-word utterances termed holophrases – to convey
As the poem “Children Learn What they live” expresses, the kind of home and school
intentions, desires and demands. Usually the words are nouns describing familiar objects environment that parents produce determines to a very extent the quality of the
that the child observes (e.g. book, ball, baby0 or wants (e.g. Mama, Dada) development of children.
Let us discuss those elements that have something to do with the wholesome socio-
By 18 months of age, children typically have vocabularies of 3 to 100 words (Siegler, emotional development of children.
1987). Because the young child’s vocabulary is very limited at this point in the
Attachment
development process, the child overextends the meaning of words in his/her existing
lexicon to cover things and ideas for which a new word is lacking. For example the general • For healthy socio-emotional development, the infant needs to establish an enduring
term for any kind of four-legged animal by may “doggie”. In linguistic this is called emotional bond characterized by a tendency to seek and maintain closeness to a
specific figure, particularly during stressful situation. This is the social phenomenon
overextension error. of attachment.
• According to Dr. John Bowly, the father of Attachment theory, the beginnings of
attachment occur within the first 6 months of a baby’s life with a variety of built-in
Gradually between 1.5 and 2.5 years of age, children start combining single words to signals that baby uses to keep her caregiver.
produce two-word utterances. These two-word or three-word utterances with rudimentary • The key to a good start in the social development of the baby is a lot of responsive
interaction with the baby (K.Pasek and R.Glinkoff, 2003). Babies thrive on social
syntax with articles and prepositions missing are referred to as telegraphic speech. interaction when it is in response to their social bids. Babies seem to let us know
when they want to interact or not. The timing of the caregiver’s response to the
baby is important.
• Other relevant and interesting research findings cited by K.Pasek and R. Golinkoff,
(2003) in their book “Einstein Never Used Class cards” are given below:
 What is absolutely central to babies emotional well-being is not so much Child’s threshold for distress. Some babies are very sensitive. They become
feeding but the consistent involvement of caregivers. Being fed by your upset very easily when stresses. Other babies can more comfortably wait when
mother is not what attachment you to her. It is consistent, close nurturing they need a feeding or some attention.
that matters in early relationships. The rhythmicity of children. Some babies get hungry or sleepy on fairly regular
 Children who have good attachment relationships as infants make better and predictable basis. Other babies sleep at varying times, urinate or have bowel
adjustment in a number of areas in future life. But remember, Having a good movements at unpredictable times and get hungry at different times. They are hard
attachment in infancy gives you a great start but can’t carry you through life. to put on a “schedule”.
The intensity of response in each baby. When a baby’s threshold for distress has
Temperament been reached, some babies act restless. Others act cranky or fret just a little. Still
others cry with terrific intensity or howl with despair when they are stresses. They
1 Another factor related to the infant’s socio-emotional development id shriek with delight and respond with high energy when reacting to happy or
temperament. Temperament is a word that “captures the ways that people differ, challenging situations.
even at birth, in such things as their emotional reactions, activity level, attention Approach to new situation. Some infants are very cautious. They are wary and
span, persistence, and ability to regulate their emotions” (K. Pasek and R. fearful of new teachers, being placed in a different crib, or being taken to visit a
Golinkoff, 2003). Every baby expresses personality traits we call temperament. new setting. Other infants approach new persons, new activities, or new play
How a child responds emotionally to objects, events, and people is a reflection of possibilities with zest and enjoyment.
his individual temperament. Distraction. Some children can concentrate on a toy regardless of surrounding
2 Researchers Thomas, Chess, and Birch described nine different temperament bustle or noise in a room. Others are easily distracted.
categories (Honig, 20110, Secure Relationships: Nurturing Infant-Toddler Adaptability of each child. Some children react to strange or difficult situations with
Attachments in Early Care Settings) These include: distress, but recover fairly rapidly. Others adjust to new situations with difficulty or
• Activity level after a very long period.
• Mood Child’s attention span. Some children have long attention span. They continue
• Threshold for distress with an activity for a fairly long time. Others flit form one activity to another.
• Rhythmicity
• Intensity of response The Emergence of the moral Self
• Approach-Withdrawal
• Distractibility  A Sense of morality presupposes awareness of the existence of moral standards
and the ability to evaluate oneself against standards. Once children can recognize
• Adaptability themselves as entities, they become capable of self-valuation and elf-description
• Persistence against a set of standards. In the research conducted by Professor Deborah
Stipek and her colleagues at the University of California, Los Angeles, (Pasek, K
To determine a child’s temperament, make the following observations: and R. Golinkoff) about 50% of the 19-to-24 month olds and 80% of 25-to-28-
months old and almost all 30-to-40-months-olds are capable of self-evaluation.
Activity Level. Some babies are placid or inactive. Other babies thrash about a lot These age groups of babies therefore have a sense of morality.
and, as toddlers are always on the move. At this stage, they must be watched  Children who aren’t capable of self-evaluation and self-description don’t have the
carefully. capacity to experience a sense of shame and remorse. Moral behavior cannot
The mood. Some babies are very smiley and cheerful. Although securely occur when children do not recognize themselves as social beings whose behavior
attachment emotionally to their teachers, others have a low-key mood and look can be evaluated against some standard.” (Pasek, K and R. Golinkoff, 2003)
more solemn or unhappy.
The development of emotions In toddlerhood, however, children begin to develop skills to regulate their emotions with
Here are the milestones of the baby and the toddler’s emotional development and social the emergence of language providing an important tool assist in this process. Being able to
development: articulate an emotional state in itself has regulatory effect in that it enables children to
communicate their feelings to a person capable of helping them manage their emotional
Early Infancy (birth-six months) state. Speech also enables children to self-regulate, using soothing language to talk
 It is not clear whether infants actually experience emotions, or if adults, using adult themselves through difficult situations.
facial expression as the standard, simply superimpose their own understanding of
the meaning of infant facial expressions.
 Between six-ten weeks, a social smile emerges, usually accompanied by other Erikson’s psychosocial theory
pleasure-indicative actions and sounds including cooing and mouthing. This occurs The first two stages (of the 8 stages of a person’s psychosocial development) apply at the
in response to adult smiles and interactions. periods of infancy and toddlerhood, that is why they are discusses below:
As infants become more aware of their environment, smiling occurs in response to
a wider variety of contexts. They may smile when they see a toy they have Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
previously enjoyed. Laughter, which begins at around three of four months, • Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust
requires a level of cognitive development because it demonstrates that the child • Virtue: Hope
can recognize incongruity.
The first stage of Erik Erikson’s centers around the infant’s basic needs being met by the
parents. The infant depends on the parents especially the mother, for food, sustenance,
Later infancy months (7-12) and comfort. the child’s relative understanding of world and society come from the parents
 During the last half of the first year, infants begin expressing fear, disgust and and their interaction with the child.
anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities. Anger, often expressed by
crying is a frequent emotion expressed by infants. Although some infants respond Will. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
to distressing events with sadness, anger is more common.
• Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
 Fear also emerges during this stage as children become able to compare an
unfamiliar event with what they know. Unfamiliar situations or objects often elicit
• Main Question: “Can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?” 
fear responses in infants. One of the most common is the presence of an adult Virtue: Will
stranger, a fear that begins to appear at about seven months. A second fear of this As the child gains control over eliminative functions and motor abilities, they begin to
stage is called Separation anxiety. Infants seven to twelve months old may cry in explore their surroundings. The parents still provide strong base of security from which the
fear if the mother or caregiver leaves them in an unfamiliar place. child can venture out to assert their will. The parents’ patience and encouragement help
foster autonomy in the child. Highly restrictive parents, however, are more likely to instill
the child with a sense of doubt and reluctance to attempt new challenges.
Toddlerhood years (1-2)
During the second year, infants expression emotions of shame or embarrassment and
pride. These emotions mature in all children and adults contribute to their development.
Lesson 5: Early Childhood (The Preschooler)
The preschooler years is commonly known as “the years before formal schooling
Emotional understanding
begins.” It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years before formal
During this stage of development, toddlers acquire language and are learning to verbally
school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. The preschool year is
express their feelings. This ability, rudimentary as it is during early toddlerhood, is the first
very important as it lays foundation to later development. At this stage, preschoolers
step in the development of emotional self-regulation skills.
achieve many developmental milestones. As such, pre-service teacher who might be
Infancy, children largely rely on adults to help them regulate their emotional states. if they
interested to teach and care for preschoolers need to be knowledgeable about them to be
are uncomfortable they may be able to communicate this state by crying, but have little
truly an intentional and effective teacher.
hope of alleviating the discomfort on their own.
This lesson on the physical development of preschoolers focuses on the acquisition of Maniipulative skills are those that involve projecting and receiving objects, like
gross and fine motor skills, artistic expression, proper nutrition and sleep, and what throwing, striking, bouncing, catching and dribbling.
teachers and caregivers should do to maximize the preschoolers’ development.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller muscles in the
Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here are picking,
squeezing, pounding and opening things, holding and using a writing implement. It also
1 There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers. involves self-help skills like using the spoon and pork when eating, buttoning, zipping,
2 The preschoolers’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross combing and brushing.
and fine motor skills.
3 Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at are very important for the Different environment provide different experiences with fine motor skills. For example the
preschoolers availability of information and communications technology in largely urban areas make
4 Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the younger and younger children proficient in keyboarding and manipulation of the mouse or
preschoolers. gaming console like the Play Station Portable (PSP).
5 Caregivers and teachers can do a lot maximizing the growth and development
of preschoolers By the end of the preschool years most children manage to hold a pencil with their thumb
and finger, draw pictures; write letters use scissors do stringing and threading activities.
6 Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classroom, materials and
They can be do self-help skills like eating and dressing up independently.
activities.
Handedness or the preference of the use of one hand over the other is usually established
Significant Changes in Physical Growth
around 4 years of age. Earlier than this, preschoolers can be observed to do tasks using
Physical growth increases in the preschool years, although it is much slower in pace than
their hands interchangeably. We can observe a preschooler shifting the crayon from left of
in infancy and toddlerhood. At around 3 years of age, preschoolers move, from the
right and back again while working on coloring activity.
remaining baby-like features of the toddler, toward a more slender appearance of a child.
The trunk, arms and legs become longer.
Preschoolers’ Artistic Development
The center of gravity refers to the point at which body-weight is evenly distributed.
Toddlers have their center of gravity at a high level, about the chest level. This is why they At the heart of preschooler years is their interest to draw and make other forms of artistic
have difficulty doing sudden movements without falling down. Preschoolers on the other expressions. This form of fine motor activity is relevant to preschoolers. Viktor Lowenfeld
hand, have their center of gravity at a lower level, right about near the belly button. This studied this and came up with the stages of drawing in early childhood:
gives them more ability to be stable and balanced than the toddler. The preschooler moves
from the unsteady stance of toddlerhood to a more steady bearing.  Stage 1. Scribbling Stage. This stage begins with large zig-zag lines which later
become circular marking. Soon, discrete shapes are drawn. The child may start to
Gross and Fine Motor Development name his/her drawing towards the end of this stage.
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large muscles.
These gross motor skills are categorized in to locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative  Stage 2. Preschematic stage. May already include early representations (This
skills. also becomes very significant when we discuss about cognitive development). At
Locomotor skills are those that involve going from one place to another, like this point adults may be to recognize drawing. Children at this stage tend to give
the same names to their drawing several times.
walking, running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping, and
dodging.
Non-locomotor ones are those where the child stays in place, like bending,  Stage 3. Schematic stage. More elaborate scenes are depicted. Children usually
draw form experience and exposure. Drawing may include houses, trees, the sun
stretching, turning and swaying.
and sky and people. Initially, they may appear floating in air but eventually drawings • Purposefully Copies triangle
appear to follow a ground line. • Cuts with scissors following a line

Preschoolers’ Nutrition sleep 49-60 months


The kind of nutrition a preschooler gets has far-reaching effect on his physical growth and • Copies a simple pattern a simple pattern of different basic shapes
development. The preschooler’s nutritional status is the result of what nutrients he or she • Draws a human figure (head, eyes, mouth, trunk, arms, legs, etc.) without
actually takes in checked against the nutritional requirement for his her age. Obviously, prompts
having too much or little both have their negative effects. Here in our country, we can see
• Draws a house without prompts using geometric forms
the extreme of preschoolers not having enough food and those on the other end of the
extreme where we find preschoolers who are not just over weight but obese. • Colors with strokes staying within the lines
It is important for preschoolers to get sufficient amount of rest and sleep. Preschoolers
benefit from about 10-12 hours of sleep each day. It is when they are asleep that vital Personal Care and Hygiene 9Slf-help Skills)
biological processes that affect physical and cognitive development take place. During 36-48 months
sleep, especially in the dream state (rapid eye movement stage), growth hormones are • Pours from pitcher with spillage
released. Blood supply to the muscles is likewise increased helping preschoolers regain • Feeds self-using spoon without spillage
energy. At this state while dreaming, increased brain activity is also attained. • Dresses without assistance except for buttons and tying laces
• Puts on socks independently
A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do: (physical skills) 49-60 months
This bulleted list of preschoolers’ physical skills is lifted from the Physical Domain • Feeds self-using fingers without spillage
component of the Philippine Early Leaning and Development standards (ELDS). This set of
standards was based on a study commissioned by UNICEF and Child Welfare Council
• Prepares own food
(CWC). • Dresses without assistance, including buttoning and tying
This is now adopted for use by the Early Childhood Care and Development Council. • Wipes/leans him/herself after a bowel movement
Gross Motor: 36-48 months • Brushes teeth after meals without having to be told
• Hops 1 to 3 steps on preferred foot • Washes and dries face independently without having to be told
• Skips (with alternating feet0
• Jumps and turns The Role of Caregivers in the Growth and Development of the Preschooler
• Stands on one leg without falling for at least 5 seconds
Optimum physical development of preschoolers is largely influenced by the supportive
• Throws a ball overhead with control of direction
caregivers (parents and teachers) who provide a stimulating environment and appropriate
• Throws a ball overhead with control of speed activities for the children. If you have friend and relatives who are responsible for
• Kicks a ball with control of speed preschooler, And share following tips: (This collection includes those suggested by Lesia
Oesterreich, M.s family life Extension Specialist, Human Development and Family Studies,
Fine-motor Skills: Lowa state University)
36-48 Months
• Consistently turns pages of a picture or story book one page at a time, For all preschoolers:
looking at pictures with interest  Purposefully copies diagonal lines a. Engage preschool children in simple games that involve running and walking
• Purposefully bisects a cross b. Provide them with toys for catching and throwing such as soft large balls and
• Purposefully copies a square bean bags.
c. Have balancing activities for preschoolers. Use low balance beams and lines on Early childhood (preschool age) is just one stage of childhood. do you remember how you
the classroom floor or playground. Montessori schools have blue or red lines on are were as a preschooler? What you remember most as a preschooler? what did you
their preschool classroom floors. enjoy doing?

3-year-olds
a. Encourage development of hand-eye coordination by providing large buttons or old Preschoolers’ Symbolic and Intuitive Thinking
beads to string on a shoe lace.
The next sub-stage in Piaget's Preoperational cognitive development stage is the Intuitive
b. Play ball. Show children how to throw, catch, and kick balls of different sizes. Thought sub-stage, which spans ages 4-7 years. Children in this substage of development
c. Show children how to hop like a rabbit, tiptoe like a bird, waddle like a duck, slither learn by asking questions such as, "Why?" and "How come?" Piaget labeled this "intuitive
like a snake, and run like a deer. thought" because he believed that children at this stage tend to be so certain of their
knowledge and understanding that they are unaware of how they gained this knowledge in
4 year-olds the first place (i.e., knowing by intuition).
a. Encourage physical development. Play follows the leader. Pretend to walk like
various animals. Piaget also suggested that Intuitive Thinking children show a style of thinking he called
b. Set up an obstacle course indoors with challenges such as crawling, climbing, "Centration". These children typically hone in on one characteristic of someone or
leaping, balancing and running across stepping stones. something, and base their decisions or judgment on that one characteristic (rather than
c. Encourage walking with a beanbag on the head considering multiple characteristics). For example, a 4 yr. old who was asked to put blocks
into groups might focus his or her attention on the color of the blocks instead of the shape
or the material from which they are constructed. De-centering, combined with the concept
5 year-olds
of conservation (described above) are prerequisites to more sophisticated logical thinking
a. Encourage body coordination and sense of balance by playing “Follow the Leader” abilities.
with skipping, galloping and hopping. Skip or jump rope to music, teach folk Children in the Intuitive Thought substage also show many advances in cognitive skills.
dances and games, provide a balance beam, a tree for climbing, and a knotted For example, young children shift from depending on magical beliefs to using rational
rope suspended from a sturdy frame. beliefs to explain situations or events that they haven't encountered before. Very young
b. Teach sack-walking and “twist-em” “statue,” or “freeze” games to provide an outlet children may explain that a new house "grew out of the ground," while older children
for their drive for physical activity. understand that human beings put boards, bricks, and other materials together to build it.
c. Play games that can teach right and left directions, like ‘Hokey-Pokey,” and
“Looby-Loo” and “Simon Says”. According to Piaget, young children go through two distinct phases or sub-stages in
cognitive development during this stage. First, they develop Symbolic Function between
the ages of 2 and 4. During the Symbolic Function sub-stage, children master the ability to
picture, remember, understand, and replicate objects in their minds that are not
Lesson 6 : Cognitive Development of Preschoolers immediately in front of them. In other words, children can create mental images of objects
and store them in their minds for later use.
Before this period, during the Sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers understood their
Someone once wrote in his journal: “Childhood is a world of miracle and wonder; as if world as containing only what they were immediately experiencing and nothing else.
creation rose, bathed in light, out of darkness, utterly new, fresh and astonishing. The end According to Piaget, if a toddler was playing with a kitten and it left his line of vision, the
of childhood is when things cease to astonish us. When the world seems familiar, when child would be unable to create a mental picture of that kitten. To the toddler, the idea of
one has got used to existence, one has become an adult.” the kitten (and therefore the kitten itself) would no longer exist. Young children who have
developed Symbolic Function can draw a picture of or pretend to play with a kitten that is
no longer there.
These new cognitive abilities are helpful to young children's everyday experience. For Language and Social Interaction
example, children can talk about people who are traveling, or who live somewhere else,
like Grandma in Florida. They can also talk about or draw places they visited, as well as Vygotsky believed that young children use language both to communicate socially and
create new scenes and creatures from their imagination. Children can also use their to plan, guide and monitor their behavior in a self-regulatory fashion – called inner speech
mental images of things to "play school" or to "play house." or private speech (Santrock, 2002).
For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an
important tool of thought during early childhood. Full cognitive development requires social
Brain Connections in the Preschool Years interaction and language. Children must use language to communicate with others before
Because of fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain developments of young they can focus on their own thoughts (Santrock, 20020).
children have been of great interest to the field of early childhood. Brain research findings Vygotsky asserted that preschool children are unable to achieve their highest cognitive
point us to more effective ways to care for and teach preschoolers. From science lessons development (language development included) on their own and that they can improve
you had in high school or even elementary, you will remember that occur brain composed their cognitive development through use of scaffolding form more-skilled children and
of numerous cell called neurons that connect to each other to functions. cells connections adults. He introduced the term Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) to refers to tasks
are what we call synapses, sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections. Did you too difficult for a child to master alone but can be mastered with the guidance and
know that? assistance of adults or more skilled children (Santrock, 2002).

• The human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth Closely linked to the idea of ZPD in cognitive and language development is the
concept of scaffolding, a term that refers to the “changing support over the course of
• By age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be made teaching session, with the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit child’s current
during one’s lifetime performance level” (Santrock, 2002). The more skilled person is also called More
Knowledgeable Other (MKO). Can you think of ways of scaffolding preschoolers to help
• Around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thing pattern them reach optimum cognitive and language development development? Information
Processing Theory- attention and Memory

Language Development The information Processing model is another way of examining and understanding how
children develop cognitively. This model conceptualizes children’s mental processes
Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. As children for through the metaphor of a computer processing, encoding, storing, and decoding data.
through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases (morphology,
semantics, and pragmatics). The preschoolers’ attention span lasts longer than that of toddler. The child’s ability to pay
attention changes significantly during the preschooler years.
Symbolic thinking involves language, literacy and dramatic play. Children rapidly
conclude that sounds link together to make words and words represent ideas, people and The Young Children’s Theory of Mind
things. Throughout the preschool years, children’s language development becomes
increasingly complex in the four main areas: phonology (speech sounds, semantic (word Theory of mind refers to individuals’ thoughts about how mental processes work
meaning), syntax (sentence construction), and pragmatics (conversation or social uses of (Santrock, 2002).
language). A they advance in age and as they continuously interact with people, preschool By the age of 2 or 3, children become aware that the mind exists. They refer to needs,
children expand rapidly in their vocabulary through fast mapping, a process by which emotions, and mental states. When a preschool child says, “ I forgot my doll.” “I want my
children absorb the meaning of a new word after hearing it once or twice in conversation. ice cream” – these imply that he/she is aware that a mind exists. Cognitive terms such as
Preschool children combine syllables into words and words into sentences in an know, remember, and think usually appear after perceptual and emotional terms, but are
increasingly sophisticated manner. used by age 3 (Santrock, 2002).
How do children manage to develop a theory of mind at such a young age? Various • Matches identical lower letters 37-48 months: 3-4 years old
speculations and research findings suggest that social experience is very important. Social
experience includes 1) early forms of communication, 2) imitation, 3) make-believe play, 4) • Copies simple patterns with 2 or more attributes (e.g., color, shape, sequence)
language, and 5) social interaction. (Preschoolers cognitive Development, 2007). and continues this without guidance

• Recognizes familiar logos (e.g., McDonald’s, Coke, etc.)


A Quick Look at what Preschoolers can do • Recognizes signs (e.g., male& female restrooms; stop and go; danger/poison,
etc.)
Below is a list of preschoolers’ cognitive skills lifted from the Philippine Early Learning
and Development Standard (ELDS). • Matches identical 2-to-4-lette words
• Matches identical single-digit numbers
Receptive Language • Matches identical 2-digit numbers
Standards 1: The child is able to understand both verbal and non-verbal forms of
communication
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Copying Letters and Numbers)
31-36 months: 3-4 years old
Standards 1.2; The child is able to recite the alphabet and numbers in sequence 37-48
• Speaks in simple sentences months: 3-4 years old
• Talks about an event and is understood • Prints upper-case letters with a model with some reversals 49-60 months
37-48 months
• Prints complete name without model
• Uses some prepositions
• Prints upper case letters with a model with no reversals
• Use plurals  Uses past tense
• Prints lower case letters with a model with some reversals
• Uses newly learned words appropriately in sentences
• Prints numbers 1-5 with a model with some reversals 61-71 months: 5-6
• Uses newly learned words appropriately when in group
years old
conversations. 49-60 months: 4-5 years old
• Prints upper case letters without a model and with no reversals
• Draws and tells a story about his drawing
• Prints lower case letter without a model and with no reversals
Pre-Reading and Pre-Math (Matching)
• Prints numbers 1-5 without a model and with no reversals
Standards 1.1: The child is able to match identical objects, colors, shapes, symbols. The Role of Caregivers (Parents and Teachers in Cognitive Developments of
Preschoolers

31-36 months: 2-1/2 to 3 years old Learning about how preschoolers think and learn, one will realize that parents and
teachers can do a lot either to help preschoolers develop their cognitive skills or impede
• Matches identical objects with 2 attributes (e.g., color & shape) them.
• Matches identical upper case letters
Below are some appropriate practices that help develop the cognitive skills of 2 Ask 5-year-olds to tell you a story. Write it down and post it on the wall or
preschoolers. (adapted from a list of tips for caregivers and teachers by Lesia Oesterreich, refrigerator. You can also record the telling the story and let him listen to himself
M.S., Family Life Extension Specialist, Human development and family studies, lowa state later.
University)
3 Ask “what if” questions. What if there were 5 little pigs instead of 3? What if Little
Red Riding Good saw a rabbit instead of a wolf?
For three year-olds 4 Involve children in writing “thank you” notes, holiday greeting cards and letters. If
a 5-yer-old enjoys copying letters, let him dictate a short message to you and
1 Speak with children as often as possible. Use short sentences, ask questions, and copy it from your writing.
listen.

2 Add new information to your children’s sentences. “Yes that’s a flower- it a tall, red
flower and it smells so good”
3 Teach children to memorize first and last names. Lesson 7: Socio-Emotional Development of the Preschoolers

4 Provide books for children to read and read the same books to them. Rad poetry Socio-emotional development is crucial in the preschool years. We hear a lot of parents
and rhymes. Encourage a child to repeat a story and discuss the ideas and and teachers and preschool administrators say that attending preschool is more for
events. Read titles and point to important words on pages packages, and street “socialization” than for formal academic learning. There is wisdom in this. During the
signs. preschool years, children learn about their ever widening environment (Remember lesson
on Bronfenbrenner?) Preschoolers’ now discover their new roles outside their home. They
For four-year-olds become interested to assert themselves as they relate with other people. A lot very
important social skills they will learn during the preschool years will help them throughout
1 Read aloud each day and encourage children to look at books on their own.
life as adults. These skills can even determine the individual’s later social adjustment and
Provide alternative reading material with a collection of outdated coupons, junk
consequent quality of relationship in adult life.
mail, newspaper ads, and old cereal boxes.
2 Say nursery rhymes and fingerplays together. Encourage 4-year-olds to tell stories
to younger children. Abstraction/ Generalization
3 Encourage interest in writing and words. Provide children with paper and The observation you did provided you a glimpse of the worlds of preschoolers. You were
notebooks for writing. Print letters and numerals on art work, and label toy shelves once in that world of wonder and fascination. Read through this lesson and you will surely
with pictures and words that describe objects. understand more why they manifested the social behaviors that you have observed.

4 Teach important number and space concepts. Sort and count everything in sight, Big Ideas on Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional Development 1
like silverware, socks rocks, leaves, etc. Talk about things being in on, under,
The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.
behind, beside, before and after, larger than, to far, etc. For five-year-olds
1 Add drama to your reading sessions each day using different voices for different 2 A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
characters. While reading a familiar story, stop before the end and ask children to 3 Environmental factors influence gender identity in young children.
add their own end to the story.
4 Preschoolers’ social development is shown through the stages of play.
5 The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affects the preschoolers’ socio- Self-concept refers to the way one sees himself, a general view about one’s abilities,
emotional development. strengths and weaknesses. The preschooler’s self-concept mainly focuses on observable
characteristics and his/her usual beliefs, emotions and attitudes. One will hear a
6 Preschoolers are interested in building friendships. preschooler say, “Kaya ko na! (I can do it) “ako lang nagsuot ng shoes ko.” (I wore my
shoes all by myself.) An important aspect of self-concept is self-esteem, which are
naturally positive. Usually they will tend to evaluate their skills high and underestimate the
Preschoolers’ Initiative task. They are confident to try again even if they don’t succeed with something.

Erikson’s view of initiative aptly portrays the emotional and social changes happen during
the preschool years. As discussed in lesson, Preschoolers deal with the psychological
Environmental Factors and Gender in the Preschoolers’ Socio-emotional
conflict of initiative versus guilt. Erikson believed that healthy preschoolers develop
initiative, the tendency of preschoolers to want to take action and assert themselves. They Development
will yearn to create, invent, pretend, take risks and engage in lively and imaginative A the preschooler’s ability to create schemas develop, they become capable of gender
activities with peers. When parents, teachers and other adults support these attempts and typing, the process of forming gender roles, gender-based preferences and behaviors
provide a stimulating environment, the preschoolers will develop guilt. accepted by society. They come to form gender stereotypes. Preschoolers begin to
As preschoolers to through the conflict of initiative vs. guilt, they show so much energy in associate certain things like toys, tools, games, clothes, jobs, colors, or even actions or
doing imaginative play activities. Every place becomes a playground to explore, every behaviors as being “only for boys” or “only for girls.” Consequently, they form their own
single thing an interesting piece to tinkers with. Adult sometimes get exasperated over this gender identity, the view of oneself as being masculine or feminine.
behavior and begin to see the preschoolers as naughty or “Makulit”. Some parents and Gender typing and gender identity are influenced by environmental factors such as the
teachers then become overly restrictive, resorting to threats, intimidation and other scary family, teachers, peers and the mass media. This is where Bronfenbrenner’s model comes
tactics that disrespect the preschooler just to establish “control”. Consequently, the child into play. Different spheres of influence determine the preschooler’s development of a
may develop excessive guilt. Although a good amount of guilt helps in making children gender schema.
take responsibility for their behavior, excessive guilt hampers motional growth.
Mass media and ICT which include television, movies, the internet, computer games also
Preschoolers who are always punished and criticized end up constructing a view of offer various images of what it means to be a boy or girl. In the US, there is growing debate
themselves as being “salbahe” (bad) “bobo” (dumb) or even “walang kwenta” (worthless). about Lesbian-Gay-Bi-Sexual-Transgender issues which is collectively known as LGBT
This is sad because childhood years should be happy years. One poster says, “You don’t issues. Schools are in a tight situation or have to do “Balancing act” on how to deal with
have to hit to hurt.” these issues with children so that schools are still able to be on the side of respect for
diversity without necessarily confusing children who are at a stage of forming their own
The key thing to remember is to apply “judicious permisssiveness.” This involves gender schemas.
settings realistic boundaries that keeps preschoolers safe and respectful of self and others,
while allowing them greater opportunity to explore, take ricks and to engage in creative Preschool teachers should think thoroughly on how to present notions of what boys and
processes. Preschoolers will develop a healthy sense of initiative in an affirming girls can do especially in the discussion about occupations or community helpers.
encouraging and stimulating environment.

Self-Concept and the Preschooler


Parten’s Stages of Play
By the end of toddlerhood, preschoolers come out with a clear sense that they are a Play is the main agenda of the preschool years. Play has a social dimension. As the
separate and distinct person. With their ability to make representations, they can now think preschooler develops, social interaction with playmates increases.
and reflect about themselves.
Unoccupied - The child appears not to be playing but directs his attention on anything hat involves openness in communication and the willingness to explain things in ways that the
interests him. child will understand. Demandingness refers to the level of control and expectations. This
Onlooker - The child spends time watching others play. He may talk to them but does not involves discipline and confrontation strategies.
enter into play with them.
Solitary Play - The child spends time watching others paly. He may talk to them but does
not enter play with them.
Parallel Play - The child plays with toys similar to those near him, but only plays beside and
not with tem. No interactions take place. Authoritative Permissive
Associative Play - The child plays with others. There is interactions among them, no high demandingness/ low demandingness/
task assignment, rules and orginazation are agreed upon. high responsiveness high responsiveness
Cooperative - The child plays with others bound by some agreed upon rules and roles. The
goal is maybe to make something, play a game, or act out something.

Friendships in Preschool
Authoritarian Negligent
As they continue to grow, preschoolers become interested in having friends. This should
be encouraged in the preschool years as friendship benefit the preschoolers development high demandingness/ low demandingness/
by providing stimulation, assistance, companionship, social comparison and affection low responsiveness low responsiveness
(Kostelnik, 2010). Through friendship, preschooler are able to practice different social roles
like being a leader, a follower, someone who takes risks and someone who helps out and
comforts. Friendships are very important because they provide added sense of
belongingness and security. In the preschool years, parents and teachers must expose
children to experiences that help them learn skills in establishing friendship, maintaining
positive relationship and resolving conflicts. Parents and teachers, when seeing
preschoolers in a “fight”, should not just say “Tama na..ano bay an.. isa pa ha.. Tama na,
friends na kayo..Say sorry na.,” Responses like those do not foster social skills among
preschoolers. Parents and teachers need to take time and process with children how to
resolve conflicts.

Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect the socio-emotional development of the children. Caregivers here
after to both parents and teachers and even others adults that care for the Childs.
Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving styles. This was
based on a longitudinal study that looked into the adult authority and the development of
children that Baumrind conducted which began in the 1960’s. Decades later she identified
varying degrees of demandingness and responsiveness as determinants of four styles of
caregiving. Marion (2007) expounded on these determining factors.
Responsiveness refers to caregiver behavior that pertain to expression of affection and
communication. It refers to how warm, caring and respectful the adults to the child. It
Caregiving Style Description Effect on the preschooler Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles

The caregivers/parents/ teachers


with this caregiver style has the Baumrind’s Caregiving Styles and
following descriptions: Their Effects on Children

Authoritative • Expect behavior makes the preschooler feel safe


appropriate to the age of
(high demandingness, high the child and secure. Teaches the child to
responsiveness
• Maintain reasonable and take responsibility for his/her
fair limits actions
Closely monitor the develops good
activities of the child self-control

develops a realistic view of
oneself

builds the child’s capacity for


empathy
Authoritarian high  set subjective or  lead to aggressive behavior
demandingness, low unreasonable limits of the child
responsiveness communicate
  brings about poor self-
messages strive to control
 have strong
psychological control  Results in poor self-esteem
over the child

Permissive  Permit the  Has difficulty controlling


preschoolers to his/her impulses
Low demandingness, high regulate their own
responsiveness behavior and make  Tends to be dependent
their own decisions
 Tends to be demanding of
even when
preschoolers are not their caregivers
 yet ready to do so
Do not set rules of
 very few if any

Do not demand good


behavior or task
accomplishment
Emerging Sense of Self
A Quick Look at What Preschoolers Can Do Knowledge of self and Basic Roles of People in his Environment
(From the Philippines Early Leaning Standards, ECCD Council, 2010) Talk about parts of the body and their functions
Emotional Expression • Talks about own specific abilities and characteristics 9e.g., sings, dances, is
helpful, studious, etc.)
Expression of Basic Emotions 37-
48 months (3-4 years) • Describes what primary caregiver can do, what they like and don’t like

• Expresses what he/she likes • Defends possessions with determination

• Expresses what he/she dislikes • Can give reasons or justify why he/she acted the way he/she fid Forming

• Can talk about feeling (e.g., anger, sadness, worry) he/she experiences Self- Attachments

regulations of feelings/emotion • Shows preference for the company of significant adults and children (other than
the primary caregiver) over unfamiliar adults and children
• Willing to try something in order to learn more even if unsure of a successful
outcome Interactions with Other Children

• Preservers when faced with challenging or new tasks • Plays with 2 or 3 children using the same play equipment

• Accepts brief delays in gratification • Participates in games with other children but plays in his own way

• Accepts defeats well; is not a sore loser • Chat/converses with other children

• May have some fears but is not overly fearful, anxious or depressed. • Takes turns and shares toys with others
Display of Self-Appraisal Emotions (shame, pride, guilt0 • Actively participates in classroom and group routines
• Plays to learn a game • Plays organized Group games fairly
• Plays to gain mastery of a game
• Shows pleasure and enjoyment over his/her successful attempts or efforts Interaction with Adults 36
• Confidently joins small groups especially if situation is competitive  Seeks - 48 months
assistance from an adult or child to solve a problem
• Verbalizes feelings related to event that arise in classroom, home and environment
in a positive way

Receptivity of Other’s Emotion Receptivity to emotions and having empathy 37-48 • Speaks respectfully with adults using “po” and “opo” and/or appropriate titles 
months Recognizes the importance of adult’s ideas and experiences by listening and
asking questions when they share theses
• Feels others’ distress and acts appropriately (e.g., helps, comforts, gives,
suggestions, etc.) • Clarifies rules and routines before abiding by them
• Shares personal perspective when he/she does not agree with or see that value of 7 Help children understand and cope use to express how they feel. “I can see you
a rule or routine are SAD about your pet, ANGRY at your sister…”

• Can take on another person’s viewpoint 8 Use dolls, puppets or pictures to demonstrate to children how to express feelings
appropriately.
Pakiramdam (Sensitivity)
9 Acknowledge how the child feels. For example. One can say, “Nalulungkot ka dahil
• Knows when to stop asking questions or when he is being “makulit” hindi ka nakasama sa party.” (You seem sad that you did not go the party). When
• Cooperates to minimize conflict or tension Appreciating Diversity we do this, we are able to model to the preschoolers that is important to listen and
that having feelings, even negative ones, are okay.
• Asks questions that indicate he/she notices differences in socio-economic status
10 Catch children doing good. Affirm the efforts they make to accomplish something.
• Asks questions about new/different words (dialects) and practices in the community Be specific in your praise. Do not just sat, “Good job’ or “Very good”. Instead, say,
“When I saw you pack-away your toys, I felt really happy. Remember to always
• Talks about gender differences and roles pack-away.”
• Regards everyone respectfully, using proper titles/labels and does not resort to
11 Read Storybooks that deals about friendships
name-calling
12 For teachers, develop routines that encourage working together and getting along.
• Willing to make friends with other children and adults In different situations and
locations (e.g., schools, neighborhood)

The Role of Caregivers in the Socio-emotional Development of the Preschooler


From the discussion above one can see the very important role that parents and
teachers paly in the socio-emotional development of the preschooler. The following tips are
given to caregivers (parents and teachers):
1 Greet each child with his or her name each day. Be sincere and respectful to each
child.
2 Read storybooks that deal about friendship and different feelings
3 Develop routines in the home or school that encourage working together and
getting along
4 Help children learn to make rules and play simple games by providing opportunities
for them to play in small groups
5 Plays games that involve social interaction and team work
6 Observe how a child plays with other children. Teach him to request, bargain,
negotiate, and apologize.

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