Importatnt formulas will be highlighted yellow
7. GRAVITATION
7.2) Kepler's laws
i. Law of orbits:
All planets move in elliptical orbits around the sun. The sun will be
situated at one of the foci of the ellipse.
F1 and F2 are the foci of the
ellipse
(The sun will be in any 1 of
these points)
OP = OA
Major axis = OP + OA = AP
(longest diameter)
OB = OC
Minor axis = OB + OC
(Shortest diameter)
ii. Law of areas:
The line that joins any planet to the sun always sweeps equal areas at
equal intervals of time.
This law also proves that planets move faster when they are closer to
the sun as the sun's gravitational pull on the planet is stronger.
t1 = t2
Area(AOB) = Area(DOC)
iii. Law of periods:
The square of time taken by the planet to complete 1 revolution is
directly propotional to half of its major axis. (half of the major axis is
also called as semi major axis).
T 2 ∝ a3
OA and OP are the 2 semi
major axes of the elipse
7.3) Universal law of gravitation
Every particle of matter attracts every other particle of matter with a
force that is directly proportional to the product of masses of the
particles and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.
F – Force of attraction
between particles.
M1 – Mass of first
Particle.
M2 – Mass of
second
Particle.
r – Distance between
both particles.
G – Gravitation
Constant.
G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/Kg2
The force exerted by both the objects are attractive forces.
Both objects, regardless of mass exert the same magnitude of force in
opposite directions. Hence, the force exerted by the objects is equal
and opposite in nature.
Even though the force exerted by both objects on each other is equal,
the lighter object always moves towards the heavier object. This is why
when we throw a ball up, we say the ball came down instead of saying
the ground went up.
In this image:
7.5) Acceleration due to gravity of the earth
Let's take the example of a hollow spherical shell with
another shell inside it.
You can treat a hollow
spherical shell as a
point mass, it is just
as if the entire mass
of the shell is
concentrated at the
center.
The force of attraction
between both the
shells will be zero.
Derivation of acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8m/s2):
ME = Mass of earth
M1 = Mass of object
(negligible)
F = ma, a=g
Now we substitute the values:
G = 6.67 Nm2/Kg2
R = 6400 Km
24
ME = 6 x 10 Kg
After substituting the values
we get g = 9.8 m/s2
7.6) Acceleration due to gravity above and below
the surface of the earth
Acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s2) decreases when
you go above or below the surface of the earth.
Acceleration due to gravity is highest on the surface of
the earth.
ABOVE THE SURFACE OF EARTH
re = radius of earth
Diagram
h = distance from
Earth
gh = acceleration due
to gravity of object.
G Me/ r2 = g
BELOW THE SURFACE OF EARTH
E=earth
Diagram S=depth of
person.
m= s*v
v(sphere) =
4/3 π r3
7.7) Gravitational potential energy:
It is the amount of work done in bringing the given body
from infinity to that point against the gravitational force.
Gravitational potential energy
S= Δr (radius)
∫ xn dx = ((xn+1)/(n+1))
+C
-1/∞ = 0
Change in distance:
7.8) Escape speed/velocity:
The minimum velocity needed to escape the gravitational
pull of any planet.
g = GM/r2
gr2 = GM
g = 9.8 m/s2
r = 6400km
Important formulas:
8. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS:
8.1) Basic terms:
Deformation: Changing the shape of an object
by applying force on it.
Elastic materials: Materials which can return to
their original shape after deformation. This property
is known as elasticity. Eg: spring.
Plastic materials: Materials which cannot return to
their original shape after deformation. This property
is known as plasticity. Eg: metal cup.
8.2) Stress and strain:
Elastic behavior of solids: When an elastic object
is subjected to a deforming force it generates a
restoring force of equal magnitude in the opposite
direction to bring the object back to its original
shape.
Stress is the internal restoring force per unit area.
Stress = (restoring force)/area [S.I unit = N/m2]
Types of stress:
Normal/longitudinal stress
i. When 2 equal forces
are applied in
Tensile
opposite directions,
stress the objects length
will increase, and
width will decrease,
and a restoring force
will be generated.
T = F/A
ii.Compressive When 2 equal forces
are applied in
stress
opposite directions,
the objects length
will decrease, and
width will increase,
and a restoring force
will be generated.
C = F/A
Shearing/tangential stress
When a deforming force acts
tangentially to an object and
changes its shape. The restoring
force generated is known as
shearing/tangential stress.
Hydraulic stress
If a body is subjected to a uniform
force from all sides, then the
corresponding force is called as
hydraulic stress.
Types of strain:
Strain is the ratio of the change in the object's
dimension to the object's original dimension.
Strain = (change in dimension)/(original dimension)
Types of strain
i. Longitudinal Change in length/original length
strain => ΔL/L
ii. Volumetric Change in volume/original
strain volume
=> ΔV/V
iii. Shear strain Tanθ = displacement of parallel
plane/ distance between 2
planes
Tanθ = Δx/L
[refer to the diagram below for this].
8.3) Hooke's law:
This law gives the relationship between stress and strain.
Stress ∝ Strain
Stress = k*Strain
K is the modulus of elasticity.
8.4) Stress strain curve:
OA :-
Stress ∝ Strain
Even though you drastically increase stress
the increase in strain is very minimal.
A is the point of proportional
limit. AB :-
With increase in stress the amount of increase
in strain is higher than OA.
B is the elastic limit.
BC :-
Stress ∝ Strain
When the stress strain graph reaches point c
the object permanently loses its elasticity.
CD :-
Applying less stress will cause more
strain. DE :-
Object is already very weak on applying even
the slightest force object will break.
This is why E is called as fracture point.
If the distance between DE is small the object
is brittle.
If the distance between DE is long the object
is ductile.
Substances like tissue of aorta and rubber which can be
stretched to cause long strains are called elastomers.
8.5) Elastic moduli:
The ratio of stress and strain is called modulus of
elasticity.
Youngs modulus:
Y = stress/strain
= (F/A)/(ΔL/L)
= (F*L)/(A*ΔL)
Shear Modulus:
Bulk modulus:
Volumetric stress = F/a =
pressure.
Change in pressure = dp
Poisson’s ratio:
The strain perpendicular to the applied force is called
lateral strain.
Poisons ratio is the ratio of lateral stress and lateral
strain.
Lateral stress = Δd/d
Elastic potential energy:
When a wire is undergoing tensile stress there is work
done against the external force acting on it. This work is
stored in the wire in the form of elastic potential energy.
