IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

IMPORTANT CLASS 12
FORMULA MADE BY KAMLESH
TIWARI
SUBJECT-PHYSICS

Coulomb’s law 2. E of an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface

𝑞1𝑞2 charge density σ
1. 𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 = K 2 σ
𝑟 E = 2ϵ
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 0
2. 𝐹𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 = 𝐾 3. E of two equally and oppositely charged
3. F = 𝑞0 E where 𝑞0 is the test charge parallel plates
E = 0 ( For outside points)
σ
Electric field intensity E = ϵ ( For inside points)
0
𝑞
1. E = K 2 4. E of a thin spherical shell of charge density σ
𝑟
and radius R
𝑞
Continuous charge distributions E =K 2 For r > R ( outside points)
𝑟
Linear charge density (λ) E=0 For r < R (Inside points)
𝑞
λ= 𝑙 E =K
𝑞
For r = R ( On the surface)
2
𝑅
Surface charge density (σ)
𝑞 5. E of a solid sphere of uniform charge density
σ= 𝐴 σ and radius R
Volume charge density(ρ) 𝑞
E =K 2 For r > R ( outside points)
𝑞 𝑟
ρ= 𝑉 𝑞𝑟
E=K 2 For r < R (Inside points)
𝑅
Dipole moment E =K
𝑞
2 For r = R ( On the surface)
1. p = q x 2a ( 2a is the length of dipole) 𝑅
2𝑝 6. Electric potential (V)
2. 𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = K 3 when r >>a 𝑊
𝑟 1. V = 𝑞
𝑝
3. 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖 = K 3 when r >>a 2. Electric potential V due to a point charge
𝑟
𝑞
4. Relation between 𝐸𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 2 𝐸𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖 V=K 𝑟
5. τ = pE sinθ
Electric flux (ф ) Electric field between two parallel conductors
𝑉
1. ф = E S cosθ E= 𝑑
→ → 𝑞
2.ф = ∮ 𝐸 .𝑑𝑆 = ε0 Electric potential energy of a system of two
3. Flux density =
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 point charges
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑞1𝑞2
U=K 𝑟
Applications of Guass’s theorem
1. E of a long straight wire of uniform linear Potential energy of an electric dipole in
charge density λ uniform electric field
λ
E = 2π𝑟ϵ U = - p E cosθ
0
 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

ρ𝑙
R= 𝐴
Capacitance of conductors
3. Conductivity (σ )
Capacitance of spherical conductors 1
C = 4πε0𝑅 σ = ρ
𝑞 4. Current density (J)
C= 𝑉 𝐼
J= 𝐴
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
ε0𝐴 5. Colour code of resistor
C= 𝑑 6. Current in terms of drift velocity (𝑣𝑑)
Series combination of capacitors I = n e A 𝑣𝑑
1 1 1 1
= 𝐶 + 𝐶 + .....+ 𝐶
𝐶𝑠 1 2 𝑛 7. Resistance (R) and Resistivity (ρ ) in terms of
For identical capacitors 𝐶𝑠 =
𝐶 relaxation time (τ)
𝑛 𝑚𝑙 𝑚
R= 2 ; ρ= 2
Parallel combination of capacitors 𝑛𝑒 τ𝐴 𝑛𝑒 τ
𝐶𝑝 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + ..... + 𝐶𝑛 8. Relation between current density (J) and
For identical capacitors electric field (E)
𝐶𝑝 = nC J = σ E or E = ρJ
9. Temperature coefficient of resistance
Capacitors with dielectrics 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
1. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor filled ∝ = 𝑅1(𝑡2 𝑡)
− 1
with a dielectric of dielectric constant K 10. Resistors in series combination
C = K 𝐶0 Series combination of capacitors
2. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ..... + 𝑅𝑛
dielectric slab of thickness’t’(<d) in between the For identical resistors
plates 𝑅𝑝 = nR
ε0𝐴
C= 11. Resistors in parallel combination
𝑑−𝑡 1−( 1
𝑘 ) 1 1 1 1
3. Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a 𝑅
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 + .....+ 𝑅
𝑝 1 2 𝑛
conducting slab of thickness ‘t’( < d) in between 𝑅
its plates For identical resistors 𝑅𝑝 = 𝑛
ε0𝐴 EMF(ε), internal resistance(r), terminal
C= 𝑑−𝑡 potential difference(V)
4. Effect of dielectric with battery disconnected 1. ε = V + Ir
from the capacitor, 2. Terminal potential difference of a cell
𝑉0 𝐸0
Q = 𝑄0; V= ; E= ; C V = IR
𝑘 𝑘
𝑈0
3. Terminal potential difference when current is
= K 𝐶0 U= drawn from cell
𝑘
V=ε-Ir
5. Effect of dielectric with battery connected
4. Internal resistance of a cell
across the capacitor ε−𝑉
Q = K 𝑄0; V = 𝑉0 E = 𝐸0 r=R( 𝑉 )
C = K 𝐶0 U = K 𝑈0
Grouping of cells
1. For n cells in series combination
Current electricity 𝑛ε
I = 𝑅+𝑛𝑟
1. Ohm’s law
V=IR 2. For n cells in parallel
𝑛ε
2. Resistance of conductor I = 𝑛𝑅+𝑟
 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

2. Force on charged particle of charge q moving

→ →
Magnetic effect of current with velocity 𝑣 in a magnetic field 𝐵
1. BIOT SAVARAT LAW F = qvB sin θ
Magnetic field at a point due to infinite long 3. When magnetic field is perpendicular to the the
conductor carrying current direction of motion of charged particle (θ = 90̊)
µ02𝐼 µ0𝐼 2
B= 4π𝑎
or B = 2π𝑎 F = qvB =
𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑣
or r =
𝑟 𝑞𝐵
Where a- perpendicular distance of point from the 2π𝑟 2π𝑚
conductor Time period of revolution T = 𝑣 = 𝑞𝑏
Magnetic field due to current through circular coil 𝑞𝐵
Frequency of revolution υ = 2π𝑚
carrying currnt 2 2 2
𝐵 𝑞 𝑟0
Kinetic energy maximum 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑚
1. Magnetic field B at the centre of circular coil
µ02π𝑛𝐼
B= 4π𝑟
where n – no of turns; r – radius of the Force on a current carrying conductor in
coil magnetic field
2.Magnetic filed at a point on the axis of circular F = B I l sin θ
coil carrying current
µ02π𝑛𝐼𝑟
2 Force between two parallel straight conductors
B= 3 where x – distance of point on the carrying current
2 2 2
(𝑥 + 𝑟 ) 1.Force per unit length on each of the two long
axis of circular coil parallel conductors carrying currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2placed

3. Magnetic field at the centre of an arc of radius r distance ‘r’ apart

µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2
subtending an angle θ carrying current F=
µ0 𝐼 θ 4π 𝑟
B= 4π 𝑟
2.Force on smaller conductor of length ‘l’
carrying current 𝐼1, held parallel to infinite long
4. Magnetic field at a point inside the long linear conductor carrying current 𝐼2, placed
solenoid carrying current distance ‘r’ apart
𝑁
B = µ0𝑛𝐼 = µ0 𝑙 I where n – no of turns per µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2𝑙
F= 4π 𝑟
unit length of solenoid, N – No of turns in the
solenoid 3..Force on a long conductor of length ‘l’ carrying
5. Magnetic field at a point at one end on the axis current 𝐼1, held parallel to infinite small linear
of long solenoid carrying current conductor carrying current 𝐼2, placed distance ‘r’
µ0𝑛𝐼 𝑁
B= 2
= µ0 2𝑙 I apart
µ0 2𝐼1𝐼2𝑙
6. Magnetic field at a point inside toroid carrying F= 4π 𝑟
current
B = µ0𝑛𝐼 Torque on a current loop
Torque on a current loop is τ = 𝑀 𝐵 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 α
Motion of charged particle in (i) Electric field Where M – Magnetic dipole moment of current
(ii) Magnetic field loop
1. Force on charged particle of charge q in an n- no of turns in the coil; I – current in the coil;
electric field α - angle between normal to the coil and plane of
→
E = q𝐸 the coil

Moving coil galvanometer

 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

𝑘 µ0
1. I = 𝑛𝐵𝐴
θ B=
𝑀
4π 3
𝑑
k – restoring torque per unit twist;
B – Magnetic filed ; A- Area of each turn of coil
Electro magnetic induction
θ – deflection in the galvanometer
Magnetic flux, Faraday’s laws of EMI
1. Magnetic flux ф = NBA cos θ
N- No of turns in the coil, B- Magnetic field, A-
2. Current sensitivity 𝐼𝑠
Area of coil, θ – Angle between normal to the coil
𝐼𝑠 =
θ
=
𝑛𝐵𝐴 with magnetic field
𝐼 𝑘
3. Voltage sensitivity 𝑉𝑠 𝑑ф
2. Induced emf e = - 𝑑𝑡
θ 𝑛𝐵𝐴
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉
= 𝑘𝑅
4. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter Motional emf
𝐼𝑔𝐺 1. Induced emf e = B l v provided the magnetic
Shunt resistance S = (𝐼− 𝐼𝑔) flux changes during motion
Where 𝐼𝑔- Galvanometer current, G –
Galvanometer resistance, I – Total current Self induction
5. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter 1. ф = L I where L – Self inductance
𝑑𝐼
𝑉
R = 𝐼 –𝐺 2. e = L 𝑑𝑡
𝑔 3
µ0𝑁 𝐴
3. In case of long solenoid L = 𝑙
Magnetic dipole moment and force between Where µ0 = 4 π x 10 Wb A m -7 -1 -1
magnetic poles
1. Magnetic (dipole) moment M = m (2l)
2. Force between two magnetic poles in air, Mutual Inductance
µ0 𝑚1𝑚2 1. ф = M I where M – Mutual inductance
F= 𝑑𝐼
4π 𝑟
2
2. e = M 𝑑𝑡
µ0𝑁1𝑁2𝐴
µ0
-7 -1 -1
3. M = 𝑙
4π
= 10 Wb A m
Alternating current
Magnetic field due to a bar magnet Ac circuit with resistance only
1. Magnetic field at a point on axial line 𝐸𝑣
µ0 2𝑀𝑑 1. 𝑖𝑣 = 𝑅
B= 4π 2 2
2
(𝑑 − 𝑙 ) 2. No phase change, E = 𝐸0sin ωt ; I = 𝐼0sin ωt
Where M – Magnetic dipole moment
d – distance from the centre of the magnet AC circuit with inductor
2l – length of magnet 1. Current lags voltage by 90̊
When the magnet is short E = 𝐸0sin ωt ; I = 𝐼0sin (ωt - 90̊)
µ0 2𝑀
B= 4π 3
𝑑
2. Inductive reactance 𝑋𝐿 = ω L = 2πν L
2. Magnetic field at a point on equatorial line 𝐸𝑣
µ0 𝑀
𝐼𝑣 = 𝑋𝐿
B= 4π 3
2
(𝑑 + 𝑙 )
2 2
3. Average power consumed per cycle 𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑣 cos
When the magnet is short 90 = zero
 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

AC circuit with capacitor Energy stored in capacitorm Inductor

1. Current leads voltage by 90̊ 1. Energy stored in capacitor
E = 𝐸0sin ωt ; I = 𝐼0sin (ωt + 90̊) 𝑈𝑐 =
1
𝑄
2
=
1 2
𝐶𝑉 =
1
QV
2𝐶 2 2
2. Energy stored in inductor
2. Capacitive reactance 𝑋𝑐𝐿 = 1/ω C = 1/ 2πν𝐶 1 2
𝑈𝐿 = 2
𝐿𝐼
𝐸𝑣
𝐼𝑣 = 𝑥𝑐
3. Average power consumed per cycle in pure
inductor is zero.
3. Average power consumed per cycle
4. Average power consumed per cycle in pure
𝐸𝑣𝑖𝑣 cos 90 = zero
capacitor is zero.

Ac with R and L Power associated with AC circuit, power factor

𝑋𝐿
1. Tan ф = =
ω𝐿 1. Average power dissipated per cycle in a non
𝑅 𝑅 inductive circuit ( 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶)
2, Impedance P = 𝐸𝑉𝐼𝑉
2 2 2 2 𝐸𝑣 2. Average power dissipated per cycle in LCR
Z = 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑅 + ω𝐿 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑍 circuit
P = 𝐸𝑉𝐼𝑉cos ф
AC with R and L 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅
𝑋𝑐 1
3. Power factor , cos ф = 𝐴𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 𝑍
=
1. Tan ф = 𝑅
= ω𝐶𝑅 1
2 2
𝑅 +(𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶)
2, Impedance
2 2 2 1 2 𝐸𝑣 Electromagnetic waves
Z = 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅 + ( ω𝐶 ) 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑍
1. Speed of em waves in vacuum
AC with L,C,R c=
1
𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶 µ0ϵ0
1. Tan ф = 𝑅
2, Impedance 2. Speed of em waves in medium
2 2 𝐸𝑣 1
Z = 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶) ; 𝐼𝑉 = c=
𝑍 μϵ
3. For em waves, the magnitude of propagation
Electric resonance vector k is
1 2π
1. At resonance, 𝑋𝐿=𝑋𝐶 ; ωL = ω𝐶
= ω= k= λ
1
𝐿𝐶 Velocity, amplitude and energy density
ω 1
2. Resonance frequency ν = 2π
= 1. E = hυ where ‘h’ Planck’s constant
2π 𝐿𝐶 𝐸0
𝐸𝑣 2. c = E0 – Peak value of electric field, B0 –
3. At series resonance frequency, Z = R, 𝐼𝑉 = 𝑅
𝐵0

4. At parallel resonance frequency , Iv = 0 max value of magnetic field

5. Q factor of resonance 1 2 1 𝐸0 2 1 2
3.𝑢𝐸 = ε𝐸
2 0
= ε
2 0
( ) = ε𝐸
4 0 0
1 𝐿 2
Q= 𝑅 𝐶
 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

(
𝐵0 2
)
1. When refraction is from rarer to denser medium
1 2 1 2 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝑢𝐵 = µ0
𝐵 = 2
2µ0
= 4µ0
𝐵0 - =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅

Where 𝑢𝐸 and 𝑢𝐵 are average density of electric Lens makers formula

1 1 1
and magnetic field 𝑓
= (n – 1) ( 𝑅 - 𝑅 )
E,B rms value of electric field and magnetic field 1 2

Lens formula
4. Total average energy field density = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵= 1 1 1
2 2 𝑓
= 𝑣 - 𝑢
1 1
ε𝐸
2 0 0
= 2µ𝑠0
𝐵0 Linear magnification
'
ℎ 𝑣
m= ℎ
= 𝑢
Ray optics
Reflection Power of lens
1 100
1.No of images of an object held between two P = 𝑓 where ‘f’ in metre; or P = 𝑓
where ‘f’
plane mirror inclined at an angle θ in cm
• •
n=
360
- 1 if
360
is even integer Combination of lenses
θ θ
• •
P = P1 + P2 + ....+Pn
360 360
n= θ
if θ
is odd integer
2.When plane mirror is turned through an angle θ , Optical instruments – Magnifying power
the reflected ray turns through an angle 2θ 1.Simple microscope
𝐷
3. On reflection, there is no change in frequency Focussed at LDDV = 1+ 𝑓 where ‘D’ = 25
and wave length of light used (LDDV)
4, Mirror formula Focussed at infinity =
𝐷
1 1 1 𝑓
𝑓
= 𝑣 + 𝑢
Linear magnification 2. Compound microscope
'
ℎ −𝑣 𝑣𝑜
m= = m = mo x me =
𝐷 𝐿 𝐷
ℎ 𝑢 |𝑢𝑜| (1+ 𝑓
) = 𝑓𝑜
(1+ 𝑓
)
where L – distance between objective and
Refraction
eyepiece
Laws of refraction, lateral
Displacement, real depth and apparent depth, TIR
𝑐
3. Astronomical telescope
1. µ21 = 𝑣 ( c – velocity of light in vacuum; v- 1. In normal adjustment
𝑓𝑜
velocity of light in medium) m= L = f0 + f e
λ −𝑓𝑒
2. µ21 = ' (λ – velocity of light in vacuum ; λ’ –
λ 2. Focussed at LDDV
velocity of light in medium −𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒
3. When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2 m= 𝑓𝑒
(1+ 𝑑
)
sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
µ21 = sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟
1 4. Reflecting type telescope
4. µ21 = µ21
. 𝑓𝑜
m= 𝑓𝑒
5. Lateral displacement = t sec r sin ( i – r) where
‘t’ is the thickness of glass slab
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
6.μ = 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ Wave optics
Huygen’s principle, reflection and refraction of
1
7. μ = sin𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
( C- Critical angle) light
Refraction at spherical surface 1. c = ϑ λ
 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

2. Refractive index of medium where n = 1,2,3 ... is the 1st, 2nd, 3rd bright fringe
𝑐(𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚) ϑλ λ 2λ 𝐷
µ = 𝑣(𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚) = ' = ' 3.Width of central maximum 2x = 𝑑
ϑλ λ
2λ
3.When light travels from medium 1 to medium 2 4. Angular width of central maximum 2θ = 𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
µ21 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 where a – slit width

Intensities of maxima and minima Dual nature of radiation and matter

𝑤1 𝑎
2 𝐼1
1. 𝑤2
= 2 = 𝐼2 Photo electric effect
𝑏
Where w- slit width; a,b – amplitude of light 1. Work function
ℎ𝑐
waves I1,I2 -Intensities of light waves ф0 = h ϑ0 = λ
2. When sources are coherent, interference occurs 0

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 2. Kinetic energy of emitted photo electrons

(𝑎+𝑏 )
𝐼𝑚𝑖
= 2 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
1
m
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = eV0 = h ϑ - ф0 = h ϑ - h ϑ0
(𝑎− 𝑏) 2
3. Intensity at any point when phase difference ∅ =h
𝑐 ℎ𝑐
- λ
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 𝐼1𝐼2 cosф λ 0

I = a2 + b2 + 2a b cosф
2 ф Photons
I = 4 I0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 1. Energy of photon
Where I0 is the original intensity E=hϑ= h λ
𝑐

Young’s double slit experiment(YDSE) 2.Momentum of photon

1. Position of bright fringe p=mv
x=nλ 𝑑
𝐷 p = 2𝑚𝐾 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 − 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
where D – Distance between coherent sources and De Brogleigh wavelength
screen ℎ
d – distance between coherent sources; n – 1,2,.... 1. λ = 𝑝 =
𝐴˙
ℎ ℎ ℎ 12.27
𝑚𝑣
= = =
λ 𝐸 2𝑚𝐾 3𝑚𝑘𝑇 𝑉
2. Position of dark fringe x = (2n – 1) 2 𝑑 Where K – kinetic energy, k – Boltzman constant
3. Width of bright / dark fringe or fringe width β V – Applied voltage.
λ𝐷
= 𝑑
4. When YDSE apparatus is completely immersed
Atom and nuclei
in a transparent medium of refractive index µ,
'
' β
fringe width β = µ Distance of closest approach
β Distance of closest approach (ro) is calculated
5. Angular width of interference fringe θ = =
𝐷 from KE of alpha particle
λ 1 2 𝑍 𝑒 ( 2𝑒)
𝑑 2
m𝑣 = K 𝑟0
where Z – atomic number
1
Diffraction of light at a single slit K= 4πε0
1. Condition for diffraction minima is a sin θ =
nλ Bohr’s atom model, radius of orbit, velocity
where n = 1,2,3 ... is the 1st, 2nd, 3rd dark fringe and energy of electron, ionization potential
2. Condition for diffraction maximaa is a sin θ 𝐾𝑍𝑒
2
𝑚𝑣
2

λ 1. =
= (2 n + 1) 2 2
𝑟 𝑟
 IMPORTANT FORMULA

CLASS 12

SUBJECT - PHYSICS

MADE BY KAMLESH TIWARI

𝑛ℎ
2. m v r = 2π

3. h υ = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
2 2
𝑛ℎ
4. r = 2 2
4π 𝑚 𝐾 𝑍 𝑒

2
2π 𝐾 𝑍𝑒
5. v = 𝑛ℎ
2
𝐾 𝑍𝑒
6. KE = 2𝑟
2
𝐾 𝑍𝑒
7. PE = - 𝑟
13.6
8. Total energy E = - 2 eV
𝑛
1 1 1
9. λ
=R[ 2 − 2 ]
𝑛1 𝑛2
where R – Rydberg’s constant
𝑛(𝑛−1)
10. No of spectral lines 2
11. Spectral series of hydrogen atom
Lyman series: n1 = 1; n2 = 2,3,4....
Balmer series: n1 = 2; n2 = 3,4....
Paschen series: n1 = 3; n2 = 4, 5....
Brackett series: n1 = 4; n2 = 5,6....
Pfund series: n1 = 5 n2 = 6,7....
K= 9 x 109 Nm2C-2
h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19J
8
c = 3 x 10 m/s e = 1.6 x 10-19J

Atomic nucleus, its size and density

1.R = R0𝐴
1
3

3𝑚
2..ρ = 3
4 π 𝑅0
3. E = mc2
4.1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13J
5. 1 a m u = 931 MeV
Mass defect and nuclear binding energy
1.Mass defect
∆𝑚 = [Z mp + ( A – Z) mn – mN]
2. Total binding energy = (∆𝑚)c2

(∆𝑚)𝑐2
3. Average Binding energy per nucleon = 𝐴
where A - mass number