Nuclear Warfare Module -V

Warfare and
Its Types

12
Note
NUCLEAR WARFARE

In the previous module, we have learnt about the various conventional weapon systems
held by the Indian Armed Forces. We also learnt about the future military technology.
Both conventional weapons and non-conventional weapons are used in present day
warfare. Nuclear, biological and chemical warfare are weapons of mass destruction
or popularly called WMD. Biological & Chemical weapon systems and warfare are
banned under the international rules and treaties. However, the use of these weapon
systems by nations cannot be ruled out.
In this lesson we will learn about the nuclear warfare. We will also learn about the
various basic terms of nuclear reactions. A brief insight into what is a nuclear weapon
and the various effects of nuclear weapon will also be given. The various protection
mechanism against the nuclear effects will also be discussed.

Objective
After studying this lesson, you will be able to:
• define the basic terms used in nuclear science;
• explain the energy yield of nuclear explosion;
• list the characteristics of a nuclear explosion;
• explain the effects of a nuclear explosion;
• explain the meaning of nuclear radiation and
• suggest the protective measures to be taken against the effects of a nuclear
explosion.

12.1 Basic Terms

12.1.1 Nuclear Energy

In a conventional explosion such as bombs, the energy released results from chemical

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Module - V Nuclear Warfare
Warfare and
Its Types reactions of the atoms of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen present in the high-
explosive material. In a nuclear reaction, redistribution or a recombination of the protons
and neutrons of the atoms takes place. This produces the energy that is tremendously
greater than the conventional energy.
Two kinds of nuclear reactions are used for the production of large amounts of energy
in a short time. They are known as 'fission' (splitting) and 'fusion' (joining together).
Note
The fission process takes place with some of the heaviest (high atomic number) nuclei
such as plutonium, which are split into smaller nuclei. In this process, a large amount of
energy is released. Fission, on the other hand, involves some of the lightest (low atomic
number) nuclei such as Helium and Hydrogen combining together to release energy.

12.1.2 Fission
When a free (or unattached) neutron enters the nucleus of a fissile atom, it can cause
the nucleus to split into two smaller parts. It is accompanied by the release of large
amount of energy. This is called the fission process. The materials used to produce
nuclear explosions by fission are certain isotopes of Uranium and Plutonium. Uranium
consists mainly of two isotopes. The Uranium isotopes are Uranium- 235 (about 0.7
per cent), and Uranium-238 (about 99.3 per cent). Uranium-235 is readily fissile and
is commonly used in nuclear weapons. Another isotope, Uranium-233 is also readily
fissile. Uranium-233 is made artificially from Thorium-232. Plutonium-239 is yet another
fissile isotope used in nuclear weapons made artificially from Uranium-238.

Fig 12.1 – Fission Process

12.1.3 Fusion
In nuclear fusion, a pair of light nuclei unite (or fuse) together to form a nucleus of a
heavier atom. For example the fusion of the Hydrogen isotope is known as Deuterium
or 'heavy hydrogen'. Under suitable conditions, two Deuterium nuclei may combine to

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form the nucleus of a heavier element - Helium, with the release of energy. A nuclear Its Types
fusion reaction is brought about by means of very high temperature, and they are thus
referred to as 'thermo-nuclear processes'.

Note

Fig 12.2 – Fusion Process

12.1.4 Chain Reaction

A chain reaction or nuclear chain
reaction is a sequence of reactions.
A reactive product or by-products
from the first reaction followed by
additional reactions to take place. In
a chain reaction, positive feedback
leads to a self-amplifying chain of
events. In nuclear chain reaction a
high speed neutron is used to
bombard the nucleus of the fissile
Fig. 12.3
atom. This breaks the nucleus into
smaller atoms and in the process also releases additional high-speed neutrons. These
high-speed neutrons bombard with the other atoms of fissile material. This process
continues to form a nuclear chain reaction. The uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction
leads to the release of large amount of heat energy, which causes destruction.

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Module - V Nuclear Warfare
Warfare and
Its Types 12.2 Energy Yield of Nuclear Explosion
The 'yield' of a nuclear weapon is a measure of the amount of explosive energy it can
produce. The yield is expressed in terms of the quantity of TNT that would generate
the same amount of energy when it explodes. Thus, a 1 Kiloton (KT) nuclear weapon
is one which produces the same amount of energy in an explosion as does 1 kiloton
Note (or 1,000 tons) of TNT. Similarly a one megaton (MT) weapon would have the energy
equivalent of 1 million tons of TNT.

12.2.1 Types of Bursts

A nuclear bomb can be made to burst on ground, air or higher in the atmosphere.
Depending on the location or point of burst in relation to the surface of the earth, the
effects of a nuclear blast varies. The point of nuclear explosion may be therefore
classified as follows: -
(a) Exo-Atmospheric: A burst occurring outside the earth's atmosphere (over
30kms above the earth's surface) is called an exo-atmospheric burst.
(b) Endo-Atmospheric: A burst, which occurs within the earth's atmosphere, is
called an endo -atmospheric burst. These can be further divided into:-
(i) High Altitude Air Burst : A high altitude burst is defined as the one in
which the explosion takes place at an altitude in excess of 30,000 m. At
these heights, the air density is so low that the interaction of the weapon
energy with the surroundings is markedly different from that at lower
altitudes. The effects of blast, thermal and nuclear radiations of such bursts
are negligible at ground level but radar and wireless communications may
get affected over a large area for a long duration.
(ii) Air Burst: When a nuclear explosion takes place below 30,000 m of
altitude, the weapon residue immediately incorporates material from the
surrounding medium and forms an intensely hot and luminous mass, which
is roughly spherical in shape. For an airburst, the height of burst should be
such that the fireball does not touch the surface of earth.
(iii) Surface or Ground Burst : When the point of burst is such that the
fireball touches the surface, then it is a surface burst.
(iv) Sub-Surface Burst : When the point of burst is beneath the ground, it is
a subsurface burst. A very shallow burst is indistinguishable from a surface
burst because the fireball will still be produced above the ground. In a
deeper burst, a gas bubble will be formed, instead of fireball.
(v) Underwater Burst: When the point of burst is under the sea, it is an
underwater burst.

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Warfare and
Its Types
Intext Questions 12.1
1. Fill in the blanks:-
(a) The chemical reaction in which a pair of light Nuclei unites together to
form a nucleus of a heavier atom is called _________________ reaction.
(b) The chemical reaction, which causes the nucleus to split into two smaller Note
parts, is known as ________________ reaction.
2. Mention the different types of Endo-atmospheric bursts.
3. What is meant by thermo-nuclear process?

12.3 Characteristics of Nuclear Explosion

The characteristics of a nuclear explosion would vary depending upon the type of
burst. They are: -
(a) An intense bright flash.
(b) A fireball.
(c) A thermal heat pulse of thermal radiation.
(d) A pressure wave-giving rise to blast and shock.
(e) Radiation.
(i) Initial radiation.
(ii) Residual radiation from neutron induced activity in the ground and the fall-
out of radioactive material.
(iii) Transient radiation effects on electronics (TREE).
(f) Electro-magnetic phenomenon.
(g) A prominent cloud.

ACTIVITY 12.1
Watch the movie "BBC History of World War II Hiroshima". Follow the link:-
https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xlk8my
or
http://www.documentarytube.com/videos/history-of-world-war-ii-hiroshima

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Intext Questions 12.2
1. TREE stands for _________________________
2. Name any two types of radiations.

Note 12.4 Effects of Nuclear Explosion

Understanding the major effects of the nuclear explosion helps us to prepare better if
an attack should occur. The effects of flash, heat, blast and radiation depends on the
size and type of weapon, the weather conditions (sunny or rainy, windy or still); the
terrain and height of explosion. In a nuclear attack, most of the people within a few km
of the explosion will be killed or seriously injured by the blast, heat or initial radiation.
Similarly, all the other natural and manmade structures will be either completely or
almost destroyed. Let us see the effects of Flash, Heat and Blast that occurs from a
nuclear explosion.

12.4.1 Flash Effects

• Dazzle: The intense flash from a nuclear burst can affect vision at long ranges
due to dazzle and eye damage. Dazzle, (sometimes called 'flash blindness') is a
temporary loss of vision resulting from the brightness of the visible burst. It will
only be of significance to personnel unaffected by other nuclear effects. As a
guide, in daylight only those facing the burst are likely to be dazzled for about
two minutes. At night, dazzle will affect those facing the burst for about 10
minutes and those facing away for about three minutes.
• Eye Damage: Retinal burns occur when the eye lens focuses the fireball image
on to the retina. Shallow burns heal completely. Deep burns lead to permanent
blind spots. However, sight is not normally lost completely.

12.4.2 Heat or Thermal Effects

Heat is a principal casualty producing effect. It is likely that some 50% of nuclear
weapons casualties will suffer burns: -
(a) To exposed skin unprotected from the thermal pulse.
(b) From charred or burnt clothing and/or local fires.
• Degree of Burns in Personnel :-
• First Degree- involve the top layer of skin.
• Second Degree- involve the first two layers of skin.
• Third Degree - involve all layers of the skin and cause permanent tissue
damage

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• Heat Effects on Materials: The thermal pulse delivers a large quantity of heat Its Types
in a very short time. Damage will be related to the amount of heat absorbed.
Fires started by the ignition of paper, fabric, netting, vegetation and other
combustible material are likely to cause a major secondary hazard.

12.4.3 Blast and Shock Effects

Note
The pressure wave from a nuclear explosion causes a blast wave in the air and a shock
wave through the ground. It is likely to produce 35% casualties.
• Effect on Personnel: The human body has lot of resistance to the blast
overpressure. The main danger is from indirect effects, such as: -
• The collapse of buildings and field defences or overturning of vehicles.
• The impact of flying debris.
• Injuries caused to personnel by being picked up and flung by the wind.
• Damage to Infrastructure: The damage suffered by equipment and installations
is likely to be:-
• Antenna broken off; cables stretched and severed.
• Vehicles, aircraft and equipment overturned.
• Buildings and field defences collapses.
• Earthworks collapsed by the ground shock wave.
• Supplies, equipment and weapons blown away by the winds.
• Terrain Effect: The most significant terrain effect will be the falling down of
structures and trees. Pressure wave follows ground undulations; hence terrain
affords little protection from blast and shock.
The estimated size of the damage caused by the 16 KT and 22 KT atomic bombings
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki is schematically depicted for you.

Fig 12.4 - An estimate of the size of the damage caused by the 16 KT and 22 KT atomic bombings of
Hiroshima and NagasakiFig 12.3- Nuclear Chain Reaction

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Module - V Nuclear Warfare
Warfare and
Its Types 12.5 Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation is divided into two categories:
(a) Initial: Initial radiation is defined as that emitted during the first minute following
detonation. It consists of gamma radiation and neutrons produced during fission
or fusion, which irradiate material.
Note
(b) Residual: Residual radiation is that which remains after one minute, post
detonation. It is essentially neutron induced activity and 'fallout' of radioactive
material.
When a nuclear weapon detonates, many neutrons are released. These cause
imbalances in the nucleus of weapon material, the atmosphere and in the elements they
interact. Many of these substances become radioactive resulting into emission of
alpha and beta particles accompanied by gamma radiation. The ground area beneath
a nuclear burst can become highly radioactive due to this process.

12.5.1 Nuclear Fallout

A fireball contains vapourised weapon residue. Radioactivity is induced into this fireball
material by neutron bombardment. As the fireball rises, it will cool and form a cloud,
which stabilizes in height and size. At the same time, the radioactive particles in the
cloud begin to fall back towards earth. These particles travel along with the wind to
settle and form areas of radioactive contamination. If rain falls through the radioactive
cloud, water falling on ground also contaminates the ground and is called 'rainout'.

12.5.2 Radiation Effects on Personnel

All forms of nuclear radiation can cause injury to man. Cell death or damage is caused
by ionization of body cells by gamma radiation. Blood cells, the stomach lining and the
skin are more readily damaged than bones and muscle. Beta particles on or close to
the body cause 'beta burns' in the form of lesions or blisters, which can take long time
to heal and are open to infection. Alfa particles cause intense ionization of body cells,
if in contact. Any radioactive particles ingested or otherwise admitted to the body may
be toxic, in addition to the hazards created from radiation.
• Symptoms of Radiation Damage: The symptoms of radiation effects in
personnel are usually described as 'radiation sickness'. Some of them are given
below: -
• Initial symptoms of headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and general
malaise.
• A symptom-free period with apparent recovery.

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• The development of latent symptoms such as loss of hair and appetite, Its Types
sore throat, fever, hemorrhages, prolonged incapacitation or death.
• Radiation Sickness: The human body has some ability to repair the damage
caused by radiation but this is not complete. Radiation doses have a cumulative
effect. A person receiving a dose of 100 centi Grays (cGys) on three occasions
accumulates a total of 300 cGys (Gray is the unit of measure of nuclear radiation.
Note
It is also called rads). The damage and symptoms, however, depend not only on
the dose but also on the rate of receipt each time and the interval between
exposures. Individuals are affected by radiation to different degrees, hence
radiation dose figures should only be regarded as a guide: -
• Below 150 cGys - no long term effects for most personnel.
• From 150 to 450 cGys - some incapacitation with possible death.
• From 450 to 800 cGys - incapacitation and death most likely in the ensuing
weeks.
• Above 800 cGys - severe incapacitation and certain death.

12.5.3 Radiation Effects on Electronics

The initial radiation pulse mainly consists of gamma rays and neutron flux. When they
directly interact with electronic components, a phenomenon called Transient Radiation
Effect on Electronics (TREE) occurs. The pulse of high-energy gamma rays lasts for a
fraction of a second. It may destroy semiconductor devices by direct interaction. The
neutron flux accompanying the gamma rays can affect semiconductors by changing
their electrical characteristics such that performance is temporarily or permanently
altered.

12.5.4 Electromagnetic Phenomena

Electromagnetic phenomena are immediate effects of a high altitude airburst or air
burst. They can be divided into following categories: -
• Atmospheric Ionization: A nuclear explosion causes ionization of the
atmospheric layers and changes their electrical characteristics. This disturbs the
transmission of electromagnetic waves from radio and radar equipment, which
pass through these disturbed areas. Periods of disruption may be short (a few
seconds), but some systems could be blacked out for several hours until earth's
magnetic field returns to normal.
• Electro-Magnetic Pulse (EMP): EMP is a very powerful burst of broadband
radio energy of very short duration. It is harmless to man. The very high energy
associated with EMP can cause damage to electrical and electronic equipment,

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Module - V Nuclear Warfare
Warfare and
Its Types which may be permanent, interruptive or transient. For example it may cause: -
• Breakdown of insulation in cables and components
• Tripping of relays and circuit breakers
• Burnout of components within equipment
• Corruption or clearance of electronic data stores
Note • Explosive failure of susceptible equipment, which may cause human injury
as a secondary effect.

12.5.3 The Fireball and the Radioactive Cloud

(i) The Fireball: A nuclear explosion leads to the liberation of a large amount of
energy in a very small period of time within a limited quantity of matter. Because
of the great heat produced by the nuclear explosion, all the materials are converted
into the gaseous form. These gases cause tremendous pressure and lead to the
formation of an extremely hot and highly luminous (incandescent) spherical mass
of air and gaseous weapon residue, which is called the fireball. The surface
brightness decreases with time, but after about a millisecond, the fireball from a
1-MT nuclear weapon, would appear to an observer, 80 kilometers away, to
be many times brighter than the sun at noon.
(ii) The Radioactive Cloud: While the fireball is still luminous, the temperature in
the interior is so high that all the weapon materials are in the form of vapour. As
the fireball increases in size and cools, the vapour condenses to form a cloud,
also called the mushroom cloud, consisting of solid particles of the weapon
debris, as well as many small drops of water derived from the air sucked into
the rising fireball.

Fig 12.5 – Mushroom Source : wikipedia.com

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Intext Questions 12.3
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) EMP stands for _____________________.
(b) The electromagnetic phenomena consist of _____________ and
____________. Note

(c) Degree of burns in personnel is classified as ______________________.

2. Mention the different categories of radiations.
3. List the initial symptoms of radiation sickness.

12.6 Protective Measures to be Taken Against the Effects of

a Nuclear explosion
If you are in a city that is about to be hit by a nuclear missile, is there anything you can
do that will increase your chances of survival? It entirely depends on where you are
when the blast happens. Close to the fireball, the thermal energy is so intense that
infrastructure and humans are incinerated. Underground bunkers and other facilities
would do little as they too would be almost completely destroyed and there would be
barely a physical trace that one ever existed. However, if you are a few miles away
from the explosion your chances of survival are better.
12.6.1 The protective measures
Measures can be classified as individual protection and collective protection. The
Individual Protective Equipment (IPE) or Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) consists
of the following:-
(a) Two piece over-garment (coat and trousers) worn over Battle Dress or Uniform;
(b) Mask and respiratory protection consisting of filter canister with HEPA filter
(which provides protection against radiological and biological particulates) and
a charcoal filter (which provides protection against chemical weapon vapors);
(c) Gloves;
(d) Over-boots;
(e) Additional components like detection equipment, individual decontamination kit
and antidotes for chemical hazard events

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Module - V Nuclear Warfare
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Note

Fig 12.7 - Individual Protective Equipment

12.6.2 The collective protection

The collective protection is provided by construction of Nuclear Biological and Chemical
(NBC) protected underground shelters. The shelter should be well stocked with food,
water, medicines and should have working phone lines, a radio and other communication
devices.

Intext Questions 12.4

1. IPE or PPE consists of (a) __________________, (b) _________________,
(c) ______________, (d) ________________ and (e) ______________.
2. The protective measures can be classified as _________________ and
______________.
3. Which essential materials should be stocked the by NBC Shelters.
4. Which type of communication facilities should the shelters have collective for
protection ?

What You Have Learnt

• Simple and basic science of fission and fusion behind nuclear explosions and
how it is used in a nuclear bomb;
• The various military terms of types of bursts which are Exo atmospheric and
endo Atmospheric bursts of the nuclear bomb.
• What happens when a nuclear bomb is exploded. The bomb explodes into a
mushroom shaped cloud giving intense head and blast. Then there is the nuclear
fallout;

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• The effects of a nuclear bomb on humans and materials, which includes the
blast, heat, radiation and electro magnetic effects;
• The protection required to be taken at the individual and collective level along
with the quipment required in both the cases.

Terminal Exercises Note

1. Explain a nuclear chain reaction.
2. Explain radiation effects on personnel and infrastructure.
3. Distinguish between a Fireball and a Radioactive Cloud
4. What type of protective measures should be taken against the effects of a nuclear
explosion?

Answers to Intext Questions

12.1
1. (a) Fusion
(b) Fission
2. (i) High Attitude (ii) Air Brust (iii) Surface as Ground Bust
(iv) Under Water Brust
3. A nuclear fission reaction is brought about by means of very high temperature.
This is reffered as thermo-nuclear process.
12.2
1. Transient radiation effects on electronics
2. Initial radiation and Residual radiation
12.3
1. (a) Electro-Magnetic Pulse
(b) Atmospheric Ionization and Electro-Magnetic Pulse
(c) I Degree, II Degree and III Degree
2. Initial and residual
3. Headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and general malaise

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Module - V Nuclear Warfare
Warfare and
Its Types 12.4
1. (a) Two piece over garment
(b) Mark and respiratory protection
(c) Gloves
Note (d) Over-boots
(e) Additional components
2. (i) Individual protection
(ii) Collective Protection
3. Food, water, medicines
4. Working phones, a radio and other communication devices

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