1.

Heart or Cardiovascular System:

It is a complex closed hydraulic System which performs the essential service of transportation of O2 ,
CO2 ,numerous chemical compounds and blood cells. Structurally heart is divided into right and left
parts. Each part has two chambers called atrium and ventricle. The Heart has 4 valves

Tricuspid valve or right atrio ventricular valve: Placed between right atrium and right ventricle. It
consists of 3 flaps or cusps. It prevents backflow of blood from right ventricle to right atrium.

Bicuspid valve or Left atrio ventricular valve: Between left atrium and left ventricle. It has 2 flaps or
cusps. It prevents backflow of blood from left ventricle to left atrium.

Pulmonary valve: Placed at right ventricle. It consists of 3 half-moon shaped cusps. This does not
allow blood to come back to the right ventricle.

Aortic Valve: Placed between left ventricle and Aorta. Its construction like pulmonary valve. This
valve prevents the return of blood back to the left ventricle from aorta.

The heart wall consists of 3 layers:

Pericardium: Which is outer layer of the heart. It keeps the outer surface moist and prevents friction
as the heart beats.

Myocardium: It is the middle layer of the heart. It is the muscle of heart made up of short cylindrical
Fibres. This muscle is automatic in action, contracting and relaxing rhythmically throughout life.

Endocardium: It I the inner layer. It provides smooth lining for the blood to flow.

The blood is circulated to the various parts of the body through 3 types of blood vessels. This blood
vessels are hollow tubes.

Arteries: are the thick walled and they carry the oxygenated blood away from the heart except
pulmonary arteries.

Veins: Thin walled and carry the deoxygenated blood towards the heart except pulmonary veins.

Capillaries

es: Smallest and last level blood vessels.

Circulatory System of Heart

It is made up of blood vessels that carry the blood away from and towards the heart. It carries
oxygen, nutrients and hormones to the cells and removes waste products like CO2.

The circulatory system consists of

(i) Heart (ii) Arteries (iii) Veins (iv) Blood

Circulatory system is a type of transport system, it helps in supplying the oxygen and digested food
to different parts of our body and removing CO2 from the blood. The Heart is the Centre of the
circulatory system. It is made up of muscles. It acts as a pump. The heart pumps blood by a
movement called heart beating.

The heart pumps the blood through the pulmonary circulation to the lungs and through the systemic
circulations to the other organs of the body.

Pulmonary Circulation
In this circulation the venous (Impure or non-oxygenated) blood flows from the right ventricle
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where it is oxygenated and gives of CO2.The arterial
(Pure or Oxygenated) blood flows through pulmonary veins to the left atrium.

Systemic Circulation:

The blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle and is pumped through the aorta and its
branches the arteries out into the body through small arteries called arterioles, then the blood is
distributed to the capillaries in the tissue where it gives up CO 2 and product of combustion. The
blood returns to the heart through different routes.

The impure blood from the upper half of the body returns to the right atrium through superior
veena cava and lower half of the body through inferior vena cava.

The blood vessels which carry pure blood from the lungs to heart are called Pulmonary veins.

The blood vessels carry impure blood from heart to lungs is called Pulmonary Artery.

Conduction system of Heart

The cardiac conduction system consists of the following components.

• Sino Atrial Node: Upper right Corner of the RA

• Atrio Ventricular Node: Lower Left Corner of the Right Atrium

• Atrio Ventricular Bundle or Bundle of His: Present in the interventricular Septum

• Purkinje Fibres: Present throughout walls of the ventricles

1. Sino Atrial Node (SA Node): Located at the upper right corner of the right Atrium. This is the
natural pacemaker of the heart. It initiates all heartbeats and determines heart rate. Electrical
impulses from the SA node spread throughout both atria and stimulate them to contract.

2. Atrioventricular node (AV Node) located at the lower left corner of the Right Atrium. AV serves as
the electrical gateway to the ventricles. It delays the passage of electrical impulses to the ventricles.
This delay is to ensure that the atria have ejected all the blood into the ventricles.

The AV node receives signals from the SA node and passes them onto the atrioventricular bundle or
Bundle of His. This bundle is divided into right and left bundle branches which conduct impulses
toward the apex of the heart.

3. AV Bundle or Bundle of His: Present in the interventricular septum. It receives stimulus from the
AV node & supplies it to Purkinje Fibres.

4. Purkinje Fibres: Present throughout the walls of the ventricles. Responsible for ventricular
contraction.
 When the atria are full of blood, the SA node fires and an electrical signal spread throughout
the Atria and causes them to depolarize. This is represented by the P wave. Atrial
contraction or atria systole starts about 100ms after the P wave begins. PQ represents the
time travel from the SA node to the AV node.
 The QRS complex marks the firing of the AV node and represents ventricular depolarization.
Q wave corresponds to depolarization of the interventricular septum. R Wave is produced by
depolarization of the main mass of the ventricles.
 S wave represents the last phase of ventricular depolarization at the base of the heart. Atrial
depolarization occurs during this time.
 The T wave represents ventricular repolarization before ventricular relaxation or ventricular
diastole.
ECG Waveform:

 P wave: Atrial Systole/Atrial Depolarization/Atrial Contraction

 PQ Interval: Time required to reach the trigger pulse from SA node to reach AV node

 QRS complex or R wave : Ventricular systole/Ventricular Depolarization

 ST Segment : End of the ventricular Contraction

 T wave : Beginning of the ventricular diastole/repolarization

 QRS>0.1 sec Severe Heart attack Occurs

 PR Interval> 0.22s AV block or first-degree heart attack occurs

 2. Skeletal System
Skeletal system consists of a framework of bones and a few cartilages. This system has a significant
role in movement shown by the body. Imagine chewing food without jaw bones and walking around
without the limb bones. Bone and cartilage are specialised connective tissues.

In human beings, this system is made up of 206 bones and a few cartilages. It is grouped into two
principal divisions – the axial and the appendicular skeleton.

Axial skeleton comprises 80 bones distributed along the main axis of the body. The skull, vertebral
column, sternum and ribs constitute axial skeleton. The skull is composed of two sets of bones –
cranial and facial, that totals to 22 bones. Cranial bones are 8 in number. They form the hard
protective outer covering, cranium for the brain.
Diagrammatic view of human skull

Figure :Vertebral column (right lateral view)

 Figure :Ribs and rib cage

Right pectoral girdle and upper arm. (frontal view) Right pelvic girdle and lower limb bones (frontal view)

Functions of Skull

 To protect the brain. This function is mainly carried out by cranium

 Ear bones help in amplification of sound
 It protects and supports the special sense organs.

Functions of Vertebral column

 It protests the spinal cord, supports the head and serves as the point of attachment for ribs
and musculature of back.
  It carries the weights of the body during motion as well as in standing position

3. Joints :
Joints are essential for all types of movements involving the bony parts of the body. Locomotory
movements are no exception to this. Joints are points of contact between bones, or between bones
and cartilages. Force generated by the muscles is used to carry out movement through joints, where
the joint acts as a fulcrum. The movability at these joints varies depending on different factors. Joints
have been classified into three major structural forms, namely, fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial.

Fibrous joints do not allow any movement. This type of joint is shown by the flat skull bones which
fuse end-to-end with the help of dense fibrous connective tissues in the form of sutures, to form the
cranium.

In cartilaginous joints, the bones involved are joined together with the help of cartilages. The joint
between the adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column is of this pattern and it permits limited
movements.

Synovial joints are characterised by the presence of a fluid filled synovial cavity between the
articulating surfaces of the two bones. Such an arrangement allows considerable movement. These
joints help in locomotion and many other movements.

Ball and socket joint (between humerus and pectoral girdle), hinge joint (knee joint), pivot joint
(between atlas and axis), gliding joint (between the carpals) and saddle joint (between carpal and
metacarpal of thumb) are some examples.

4. Structure and Functions of Neuron

Structure of Neuron
 The unit which makes up the nervous system are called Nerve cell or Neuron.
 Neuron is the longest cell in the body.
 It carries the messages in the form of electrical signals called nerve impulses.
 It has 3 components cell body or soma or cyton, Axon, Dendrites
 The cell body has a nucleus. We can also observe branches that are arising from the cell
body. These branch like structure arising from the cell body are called dendrites.
 Cyton receives nerve impulses from dendrites and transmit to axon.
 Here we find a long fiber extending from the cell body this long fiber is called axon.
 At the end of the axon, we will find some small branches called as nerve endings.
 The dendrites receive impulses whereas axon conduct impulses.
 Some nerve Fibres are covered by an insulating layer called myelin sheath with
constrictions at regular intervals. These constrictions are called nodes of Ranvier.
 The nerve impulse travel from one neuron to another by passing from axon of one
neuron to the dendrite of the other
Function:

This impulse travels from the dendrite to the cell body, and then along the axon to its end. At the
end of the axon, the electrical impulse sets off the release of some chemicals called neuro
transmitter. These chemicals cross the gap, or synapse, and start a similar electrical impulse in a
dendrite of the next neuron.

Consider information passing from eye to brain in the form of electric impulse. Nerve cells the
dendrites neuron receive the information .The axon passes the information to the next neuron. The
nerve endings are not directly
connected to other neuron
because there is some gap
between one nerve cell and
the other nerve cell. So, this gap
junction is called synapse.

Electrical impulses
release of some chemicals (that
means electric impulse is
converted into some chemicals ) in the gap called synapse.These chemicals they cross the gap they
reach the dendrite of the next neuron. This is a general scheme of how nervous impulses travel in
the body. A similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons to other cells or
target cells , such as muscles cells or gland.

Synapse : Gap between neuron and the next neuron. The small junction across which a nerve
impulse from one nerve cell to another nerve cell, a muscle cell or a gland cell.

Neuro Transmitter: A chemical that is released from a nerve cell which thereby transmits an impulse
from a nerve cell to another nerve muscle or organ.