1.
Network Layer Design Issues
Network layer ka main kaam hota hai source se destination tak data packets ko pahunchana. Design
ke major issues:
• Routing: Best path select karna.
• Congestion Control: Network ko overload hone se bachana.
• Addressing: Unique address dena har device ko.
• Packetization: Data ko packets me todna aur reconstruct karna.
• Error Handling: Transmission errors detect karna aur fix karna.
2. IP Addressing: Classful and Classless
Classful Addressing
• IP addresses ko 5 classes me divide kiya gaya: A, B, C, D, E.
• Class A: Large networks ke liye (1-126).
• Class B: Medium networks ke liye (128-191).
• Class C: Small networks ke liye (192-223).
• Class D: Multicasting ke liye (224-239).
• Class E: Research purpose (240-255).
• Classful addressing me subnet mask fixed hota hai.
Classless Addressing
• Yaha CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) ka use hota hai.
• Address ko divide karte hain prefix (network) aur suffix (host) ke basis pe.
• Example: 192.168.1.0/24 (Network = 24 bits, Host = 8 bits).
• Flexible aur efficient address allocation possible hoti hai.
3. Subnetting and Supernetting
Subnetting
• Ek large network ko chhote networks (subnets) me todna.
• Example: Class C network 192.168.1.0/24 ko divide karte hain 4 subnets me:
o Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/26
o Subnet 2: 192.168.1.64/26
o Subnet 3: 192.168.1.128/26
o Subnet 4: 192.168.1.192/26
• Fayda: IPs ka efficient use aur better security.
Supernetting
• Chhote networks ko merge karke ek bada network banana.
• Example: 192.168.1.0/24 aur 192.168.2.0/24 ko combine karke ek supernet banate hain:
192.168.0.0/22.
• Fayda: Routing tables simple hoti hain.
4. Subnetting Example
Question: Subnet a network with IP 192.168.10.0/24 into 4 subnets.
1. Step 1: Required subnets = 4.
Formula: 2^n ≥ subnets → 2^2 = 4.
2. Step 2: New subnet mask = /24 + 2 = /26.
3. Step 3: Subnet ranges:
o Subnet 1: 192.168.10.0 - 192.168.10.63
o Subnet 2: 192.168.10.64 - 192.168.10.127
o Subnet 3: 192.168.10.128 - 192.168.10.191
o Subnet 4: 192.168.10.192 - 192.168.10.255
5. Network Layer Services
• Packet Delivery: Reliable ya unreliable packets deliver karna.
• Addressing: Source aur destination ka unique address.
• Routing: Best path ka selection.
• Security: Firewalls lagakar network ko protect karna.
6. Network Layer Performance
• Throughput: Kitna data successfully deliver ho raha hai.
• Delay: Data ko pahunchne me kitna time lag raha hai.
• Packet Loss: Transmission ke dauraan kitne packets lost hue.
• Congestion Control: Traffic ko manage karna.
7. Forwarding of IP Packets
• Forwarding ka matlab hai data packets ko destination ki taraf bhejna.
• Process:
1. Router IP header ko read karta hai.
2. Routing table se next hop decide hoti hai.
3. Packet ko us path pe forward kar diya jata hai.
• Forwarding tables me routing algorithms (like RIP, OSPF) use hote hain.
8. IP Header
• IPv4 Header Structure (20 bytes):
1. Version: 4 bits (IPv4/IPv6).
2. Header Length: 4 bits.
3. Total Length: 16 bits (Packet ka total size).
4. TTL (Time to Live): 8 bits (Packet ka lifetime).
5. Protocol: 8 bits (Transport layer protocol - TCP/UDP).
6. Source Address: 32 bits.
7. Destination Address: 32 bits.
9. IPv6 Addressing
• 128-bit addresses (IPv4 ke 32-bit se zyada).
• Format: Hexadecimal, colon-separated (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
• IPv6 ke features:
1. No Broadcast (Multicast use hota hai).
2. Simpler Header (Faster processing).
3. Auto-configuration (Plug-and-play).
4. Unlimited Address Space (2^128 addresses).
Important Tip for Exams
• Subnetting practice karo—questions zaroor aate hain.
• IPv4 vs IPv6 ke differences clear rakho.
• Header diagrams yaad karo for both IPv4 and IPv6.
• Routing protocols ke basics revise kar lo (RIP, OSPF, BGP).
