1.
Point-to-Point Networks:
Point-to-Point network ek direct, dedicated connection hota hai jo sirf do devices ko connect karta hai. Yani ek
device ka signal doosre device tak direct travel karta hai bina kisi interference ke. Isme no intermediary
routers ya switches involved hote.
Example:
Dial-up internet: Jab aap kisi landline se internet connect karte ho, tab yeh ek point-to-point connection hota
hai.
Dedicated leased lines: Ismein ek company ko ek fixed bandwidth connection milta hai jo unki do locations ke
beech dedicated hota hai, matlab unka data baaki users se alag hota hai.
2. Logical Addressing:
Logical Addressing ka main goal hai devices ko unke unique addresses assign karna, jo network ke through
identify kar sake.
Yeh addresses IP addresses hote hain, jo hierarchically arranged hote hain, matlab unka structure is tarah se
hota hai ki wo specific network aur devices ko identify kar sake.
Why is it needed? Kyunki ek physical address (MAC address) ko network devices ko route karte waqt use nahi
kiya jaa sakta. IP address ke zariye, routers data ko source se destination tak efficiently route kar sakte hain.
IP Address Example: Agar tumhare paas ek local network hai, to tumhare har device ka ek unique IP address
hoga jaise:
Router: 192.168.1.1
Computer 1: 192.168.1.2
Printer: 192.168.1.3
3. Basic Internetworking (IP, CIDR, ARP, RARP, DHCP, ICMP):
IP (Internet Protocol):
IP ka main kaam hai data packets ko source se destination tak route karna. Yeh responsible hai for addressing
and routing. Agar tumhare paas IP address nahi hai, toh device apni location identify nahi kar sakta.
IPv4 32-bit hota hai (jaise 192.168.1.1) aur IPv6 128-bit (ex: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):
CIDR ka main aim tha IP address ka zyada efficient use. Pehle humare paas IP classes (Class A, B, C) thi, lekin
CIDR ne address allocation ko flexible banaya. Yeh slash notation ka use karta hai jaise 192.168.1.0/24, jisme
/24 batata hai kitne bits network ke liye hain aur baaki ke host ke liye.
CIDR ke aane se IP address wastage kam hui aur IP networks ko zyada effectively manage kiya gaya.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
ARP ka kaam hai ek IP address ko MAC address mein translate karna. Jaise agar tumhare paas IP address ho,
but tumhe hardware address (MAC) chahiye ho, toh ARP se tum woh address fetch kar sakte ho.
ARP Request: Jab device ko kisi doosre device ka MAC address chahiye hota hai, toh wo ARP request send
karta hai, aur jo device woh IP address rakhta hai, wo apna MAC address return karta hai.
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol):
RARP ka kaam hai MAC address se IP address find karna. Yeh protocol mostly old systems mein use hota tha
jaha device ko apne IP address ka pata nahi hota tha.
Example: Agar ek machine ka MAC address pata ho aur uska IP address assign karna ho, toh wo RARP ke
zariye kiya jaata tha.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):
DHCP ka kaam hai network pe devices ko automatically IP address assign karna. Jab bhi koi device network
mein connect hota hai, toh wo apne IP address ke liye request bhejta hai aur server se ek IP address assign ho
jaata hai.
Yeh protocol IP address allocation ko automate karta hai, taaki network administrator ko manually IP address
assign nahi karna padta.
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
ICMP ka kaam hai network errors ko detect karna aur diagnose karna. Jab ek packet successfully deliver nahi
ho pata, toh ICMP error message bhejta hai.
Ping Command: Ping ICMP ka hi ek use hai jo network ki reachability check karta hai.
4. Routing, Forwarding, and Delivery:
Routing:
Routing ka matlab hai data ka best path choose karna source se destination tak. Routing tables har router
mein stored hote hain, jinmein available paths and costs hote hain.
Routing algorithms like RIP (Routing Information Protocol), OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) aur BGP (Border
Gateway Protocol) routing decisions lete hain.
Forwarding:
Forwarding data ko one hop se next hop tak bhejna hota hai jab routing decision ho jata hai. Yeh basically data
packets ko appropriate next router/host tak pahuchane ka process hai.
Delivery:
Delivery ka matlab hai jab packet apne final destination tak safely pohnch jaata hai. Agar koi problem hoti hai,
toh ICMP error messages send kiye jaate hain.
5. Static and Dynamic Routing:
Static Routing:
Static routing mein network administrator manually routes set karta hai. Yeh routes permanent hote hain jab
tak manually change na kiya jaye.
Advantage: Yeh simple hota hai aur jab network ka size chhota ho, toh best hota hai.
Disadvantage: Agar network mein koi change hota hai, toh administrator ko manually update karna padta hai.
Dynamic Routing:
Dynamic routing mein routers apne aap network ke changes ke according route decide karte hain. Yeh routers
routing protocols ke zariye apna path select karte hain.
Advantage: Yeh automatically routes ko update kar leta hai jab network conditions change hoti hain.
Example: RIP, OSPF, BGP.
6. Routing Algorithms and Protocols:
Routing Algorithms:
Distance Vector Algorithm: Yeh algorithm routers ko yeh batata hai ki kitna distance (cost) hai ek destination
tak. Jaise RIP mein hop count kiya jaata hai.
Link-State Algorithm: Yeh algorithm routers ko apne network topology ki poori information dekar routing
decisions leta hai. Jaise OSPF mein har router apna routing table baaki routers ke saath share karta hai.
Routing Protocols:
RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Yeh ek distance-vector routing protocol hai jo hop count ko use karta hai.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Yeh link-state routing protocol hai jo LSA (Link State Advertisements) ke
through network topology share karta hai.
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): Yeh inter-domain routing protocol hai jo different networks (ASes) ke beech
routing information exchange karta hai.
7. Congestion Control Algorithms:
Congestion Control ka kaam network traffic ko control karna hota hai jab network overloaded ho jaata hai.
Yeh algorithms ensure karte hain ki network smooth chale, data loss kam ho aur bandwidth efficiently use ho.
TCP Congestion Control: TCP mein 3 main phases hote hain: slow start, congestion avoidance, aur fast
recovery. Jab congestion detect hota hai, TCP apni data transmission rate ko adjust karta hai.
RED (Random Early Detection): Yeh congestion detect karta hai aur usse pehle hi traffic ko thoda reduce kar
deta hai.
8. IPv6:
IPv6 ka main advantage hai ki yeh IPv4 se zyada addresses provide karta hai, yani aaj ke time mein jitne
devices connected hain, unko support karne ke liye IPv6 ka introduction zaroori tha.
128-bit address allows more than 340 undecillion addresses (340 followed by 36 zeros!).
Better Security: IPv6 mein built-in security features jaise IPSec hote hain jo data integrity aur encryption
provide karte hain.
Simplified Header: IPv6 header format simplified hai, jo data forwarding ko fast banata hai.
Multicast Support: IPv6 mein multicast (one-to-many) communication ko efficiently handle kiya jaata hai.
