Definitions in connection with spherical mirrors: - (iii) A ray passing through the centre of curvature in the case of

concave mirror, and directed towards the centre of curvature in the

1. Pole: - It is the middle point P of the spherical mirror. case of a convex mirror falls normally (∠𝑖 = ∠𝑟 = 0°) and is reflected
2. Centre of curvature: - It is the centre C of the sphere of which the back along the same path.
mirror forms a part.
3. Radius of curvature: - It is the radius (R = AC or BC) of the sphere
of which the mirror forms a part.
4. Principal axis: - The line PC passing through the pole and the centre
of curvature of the mirror is called its principal axis.
5. Linear aperture: - It is the diameter AB of the circular boundary of
the spherical mirror.
6. Angular aperture: - It is the angle ACB subtended by the boundary
of the spherical minor at its centre of curvature C.
7. Principal focus: - A narrow beam of light parallel to the principal
axis either actually converges to or appears to diverge from a point F (iv) For the ray incident at any angle at the pole, the reflected ray
on the principal axis after reflection from the spherical mirror. The follows the laws of reflection.
point is called the principal focus of the mirror.
Formation of images by concave mirrors:-

(a) Object beyond C: - The image is

(1) Between C and F (2) Real
(3) Inverted (4) Smaller than object.

(b) Object at C: - The image is

(1) At C (2) Real
9. Focal plane: - The vertical plane passing through the principal focus (3) Inverted (4) Same size as object.
and perpendicular to the principal axis is called focal plane.
Rules for drawing images formed by spherical mirrors: -

(i) A ray proceeding parallel to the principal axis will, after reflection,
pass through the principal focus in the case of a concave mirror, and
appear to come from focus in the case of a convex mirror.
(c) Object between F and C:-
(1) Beyond C (2) Real
(3) Inverted (4) Larger than object.

(d) Object between F and P:-

(1) Behind the mirror (2) Virtual
(3) Erect (4) Larger than object.
(ii) A ray passing through the principal focus in the case of a concave,
and directed towards the principal focus in the case of a convex mirror
will after reflection, become parallel to the principal axis.

Formation of image by convex mirror:-

For any position of the object between ∞ and pole P, the image is
(1) Behind the mirror (2) Virtual
(3) Erect (4) Smaller than object.
 Second principal focus: - It is a fixed point on the principal axis such
that the light rays incident parallel to the principal axis, after
Definitions in connections with spherical lenses:- refraction through the lens, either converge to this point (in convex
lens) or appear to diverge from this point (in concave lens). The plane
(i) Centre of curvature(C):- The centre of curvature of the surface of passing through this point and perpendicular to principal axis is called
a lens is the centre of the sphere of which it forms a part. Because a the second focal plane. The distance between the second principal
lens has two surfaces, so it has two centre of curvature. focus and the optical centre is called the second focal length. It is
denoted by f2 or f.
(ii) Radius of curvature(R):- The radius of curvature of the surface of
a lens is the radius of the sphere of which the surface forms a part. Thus the focal length of a convex lens is taken positive and the focal
length of a concave lens is taken negative. If the medium on both
(iii) Principal axis (C1C2):- It is the line passing through the two centres sides of a lens is same, then the numerical values of the first and
of curvature of the lens. second focal lengths are equal. Thus
f=f’
(vi) Aperture: - It is the diameter of the circular boundary of the lens.

New cartesian sign convention for spherical lenses:-

1. All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens.
2. The distance measured in the same direction as the incident light
are taken positive.
3. The distances measured in the direction opposite to the direction
of the incident light are taken negative.
4. Heights measured upwards and perpendicular to the principal axis
are taken positive.
5. Heights measured downwards and perpendicular to the principal
axis are taken negative.
(iv) Optical centre: - If a ray of light is incident on a lens such that after Rules for drawing images formed by spherical lenses:-
refraction through the lens the emergent ray is parallel to the incident (i) A ray from the object parallel to the principal axis after refraction
ray, then the point at which the refracted ray interests the principal passes through the second principal focus F2 (in a convex lens, as
axis is called the optical centre of lens. O is the optical centre of the shown in figure) or appears to diverge (in a concave lens, as shown in
lens. It divides the thickness of the lens in the ratio of the radii of figure) from the first principal focus F1.
curvature of its two surfaces. Thus
𝑂𝑃1 𝑃1 𝐶1 𝑅1
= =
𝑂𝑃2 𝑃2𝐶2 𝑅2
If the radii of curvature of the two surfaces are equal, then the optical
centre coincides with the geometric centre of the lens.

(ii) A ray of light passing through the first principal focus (in a convex
lens, as shown in figure) or appearing to meet at it (in a concave lens,
as shown in figure) emerges parallel to the principal axis after
refraction.

(iii) A ray of light, passing through the optical centre of the lens,
emerges without any deviation after refraction, as shown in figure.

(v) Principal foci and focal length:-

First principal focus: - It is a fixed point on the principal axis such that
rays starting from this point (in convex lens) or appearing to go
towards this point (in concave lens) after refraction through the lens,
become parallel to the principal axis. It is represented by F1 or F’. The
plane passing through this point and perpendicular to the principal Formation of images by spherical lenses:-
axis is called the first focal plane. The distance between first principal (a) Object beyond 2F. The image is
focus and the optical centre is called the first focal length. It is (i) between F and 2F (ii) real
denoted by f1 or f’. (iii) inverted (iv) smaller
 provided the size of the scattering particles are much smaller than 𝜆 .
Mathematically,
1
𝐼∝ 4 [For a<< 𝜆]
𝜆
Thus, the scattered intensity is maximum for shorter wavelengths.

Daily life phenomena based on scattering of light: - Several beautiful

(b) Object at 2F. The image is phenomena in nature are based on scattering of light.
(i) at 2F (ii) real 1. Blue colour of the sky. The blue colour of the sky is due to the
(iii) inverted (iv) same size scattering of sunlight by the molecules of atmosphere. As sunlight
passes through atmosphere, the nitrogen and oxygen molecules of air
absorb some amount of sunlight and re-emit it. The free gas
molecules scatter light in all directions. But scattering is preferential.
According to Rayleigh's law of scattering, the intensity of scattered
light
(c) Object between 2F and F. The image is 1
(i) beyond 2F (ii) real 𝐼∝ 4
𝜆
(iii) inverted (iv) larger So the light at the short wavelength (blue) end of the visible spectrum
is scattered about ten times more than the light at the long
wavelength (red) end. If the earth had no atmosphere, there would
be no scattering of light, the sky would appear black and stars could
be seen during day hours. This is what astronauts actually observe at
heights 20 km above the earth atmosphere becomes quite thin or on
the moon which has no atmosphere.
2. Reddishness at sunset and sunrise. When the sun is near the
(d) Object between F and O. The image is horizon at sunset or sunrise, the light rays have to traverse a larger
(i) behind object (ii) virtual thickness of the atmosphere than when the sun is overhead at noon.
(iii) erect (iv) larger In accordance with Rayleigh's scattering law, the lower wavelengths
in the blue region are almost completely scattered away by the air
molecules. The higher wavelengths in the red region are least
scattered and reach our eyes. Hence the sun appears almost reddish
at sunset and sunrise.

(e) Object in any position. The image is

(i) in front of object (ii) virtual
(iii) erect (iv) smaller

3. Clouds appear white. Large particles like raindrops, dust and ice
SCATTERING OF LIGHT: - This is the phenomenon in which light is particles do not scatter light in accordance with Rayleigh's law, i.e.,
deflected from its path due its interaction with the particles of the their scattering power is not selective. They scatter light of all colours
medium through which it passes. Basically, the scattering process almost equally. Hence the clouds which have droplets of water with a
involves the absorption of light by the molecules followed by its re- >> 𝜆 are generally white.
radiation in different directions. Two types of scatterings: 4. Danger signals are red. According to Rayleigh's law, the intensity
of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of
1. Elastic or Rayleigh scattering: - When the size 'a' of the scattering wavelength. In the visible spectrum, red colour has the largest
particles is much smaller than the wavelength ‘𝜆’ of incident light, wavelength, it is scattered the least. Even in foggy conditions, such a
there is no exchange of energy between the scattering particles. signal covers large distances without any appreciable loss of intensity
Consequently, there is no change in the frequency or wavelength of due to scattering. Therefore, red coloured signals are preferred.
the scattered light. This type of scattering is called elastic or Rayleigh
scattering. It obeys Rayleigh's law of scattering.

2. Inelastic scattering: - When the size of the scattering particles is

much greater than the wavelength of incident light i.e. a >> 𝜆, there
is interchange of energy between incident light and the scattering
particles. Consequently, the scattered light has a frequency or
wavelength different from that of incident light. This type of
scattering is called inelastic scattering. For example, the Raman Effect
and Compton effect.

Rayleigh's law of scattering: - According to Rayleigh's law of

scattering, the intensity of light of wavelength 𝜆 present in the
scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of 𝜆,