Science Reviewer
Lesson I. Respiratory system
The Respiratory System consists of the lungs and various breathing tubes that allow air to reach the
lungs. It allows gas exchange, it brings oxygen into the body and expels carbon dioxide.
Upper Respiratory Tract
The upper respiratory tract consists of the nostrils, nasal cavities, pharynx, and larynx.
Nose & Nostrils - You breathe air through the nose, it is filtered through the two openings of the nose
called nostrils. Coarse hairs that are coated with mucus from glands in the nostrils trap large dust and dirt
particles. This can cause sneezing.
Phraynx - Where warmed, moistened, and filtered air moves. The pharynx is a common passageway for
food and air. It leads to the esophagus and the trachea. The esophagus leads to the digestive system,
while the trachea leads to respiratory system.
● Epiglottis - a flap of tissue that closes the entrance to the rest of the respiratory system when
you swallow.
Larynx - Located at the top of the trachea (trachea is also known as the windpipe). Two elastic ligaments
called vocal cords that produces voice. Is supported by curved pieces of cartilage, the two connected
pieces by a ridge is called thyroid cartilage or adam’s apple.
Lower Respiratory Tract
The lower respiratory tract consist of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoili.
Trachea - also known as “windpipe”. It acts as the main passageway to the lungs. Because of the rings of
cartilage, the trachea is flexible enough to keep the passageway open for air.
- Lungs: Where the clean air from the trachea moves to.the main organ of the respiratory system.
They are sponge like organs. The left lung is smaller than the right lung, the lungs are divided
intro two sections called lobes. If one lobe is diseased, the other lobe won’t be affected. They are
also surrounded by two layers of membrane called pleura.
Bronchi - where trachea branches into two tubes (singular:bronchus). The left bronchus enters the left
lungs and the right bronchus enters the right lung. They continue to divide again and again until they
appear as tiny twig-sized tubes called bronchioles.
Alveoli - at the end of the bronchioles. Inflates during inhalation and deflate during exhalation. They are
gateways through which oxygen enters the body. It serves as the site of respiration where the exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide happens.
Lesson 2: Mechanism of gas exchange
Four phases of gas exchange
1. Breathing or ventilation - the act of taking air in and out of the lungs.
2. External respiration - the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and blood within the
lungs.
3. Internal respiration - the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and body cells.
4. Cellular respiration - process of using oxygen for breaking down sugar in food.
Four types of Gas Exchange in Animals
1. Integumentary exchange - through the skin of animals like earthworms, they don’t have lungs so their
skin needs to stay moist for oxygen to be able to pass through
2. Gills - gas exchange underwater
3. Tracheal systems - used by insects
4. Lungs - found in land animals that allows gas exchange
The human brain regulates the breathing rate of a person through respiratory center located in the
medulla oblongata.
● Breathing occurs because of the differences in air pressure between the lungs and the
atmosphere. Breathing has two phases; inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation). When
breathing in, the diaphragm contracts and pulls the rib cage down and outward.
● When you exhale, your diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax. This action causes the space
inside your chest to decrease, while the pressure within the chest cavity increases. It forces air
out of the lungs.
External respiration - Alveoulus is surrounded by tiny blood vessels called capillaries. The exchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air takes place in the 600 million alveoli of the lungs.
The walls of the alveoli shares a fused basement with the capillaries, they are close to each other that
oxygen and carbon dioxide move freely. So when air enters alveoli, oxygen in the air seeps through the
thin walls of the alveoli and into the surrounding capillaries.
Internal respiration - Refers to the exchange of gases at the level of body cells, it brings oxygen to your
lungs to all other tissues in your body and takes out carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs as
a waste product
Cellular respiration - Body cells uses food they get from the blood and release energy within it if they get
enough oxygen. The energy producing process fueled by oxygen. It produces carbon dioxide as a
metabolic waste product.
Infectious disease of the Respiratory Tract
Common cold - a contagious infection of the upper respiratory tract and usually the result of viral infection
caused by rhinovirus.
Influenza - also known as flu, is a contagious illness caused by several influenza virus called myxovirus.
Influenza is a more severe disease that could also lead to pneumonia and death. Symptomps of influenza
are chills, fever, severe headache, muscular pains, and general discomfort.
Pneumonia - any infection of the lungs caused by bacteria, viruses, and fungi. It symptoms include chest
pain, fluid in the lungs, and difficulty in breathing. It causes inflammation of the lungs air sacs or alveoli
which is filled with pus or fluid.
Tuberculosis - caused by bacteria Myobacterium tuberculosis, which can spread through respiratory
droplets by coughing, sneezing, or spitting phlegm. The bacteria includes a localized pro-inflammatory
response that leads to the formation of small lump-like lesions called tubercles.
Respiratory Disorders
Asthma - chronic allergic condition that makes the breathing airways narrower and swollen and causes
them to increase the production of mucus.
Bronchitis - inflammation or swelling of breathing passages, the pathway between the nose and lungs.
The small passageways of air and their lining may become inflamed and clogged by mucus. It can be
triggered bby tobacco smoke and industrial pollutants.
Emphysema - long-term disease of the lungs caused by prolonged exposure to respiratory irritants such
as tobacco chemicals and air pollutants such as fumes or coal. It damages the alveoli and the breathing
passageways. Smoking is often the main rason for emphysema.
COPD - associated with a group of lung diseases; emphysema, asthma, and chronic bronchitis.
Progressive and long-term obstruction of airflow that makes breathing difficult.
Lung cancer - it can be triggered by long-term exposure to carcinogens suchas asbestos and tobacco
smoke. Example of a cause of lung cancer is smoking. These chemicals can cause the unctrolled growth
of malignant cells called tumors.
Lesson III. Circulatory System
This is a process of transferring oxygen, nutrients, and waste product in animals is carried out by the
circulatory system. The main function of this is to carry oxygen and nutrients to every cell of the body and
remove carbon dioxide from the cells.
The circulatory systems includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels that carry blood to every part of the
body and the lympathic system. The fluid contained in thesesystem are called blood and lymph. It says
that men have more blood than women.
The Heart - about the size of a clenched fist. It pumps blood through blood vessels and is divided into
four chambers. The two upper chambers are the right and left atria. They receive blood from the heart.
The two lower chambers are the right and left ventricles. They pump blood out of the heart.
● A one-way valve seperates each atrium from the ventricle. As a result, blood only flows from an
atrium to a ventricle, it cannot flow in the opposite direction. A wall of tissue called septum divides
the heart in half to prevent blood from flowing between the two atria or two ventricles and
separates the flow of oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood.
● When the heart pumps, two atria contracts and forces the blood into the ventricle. The atria relax
and the two ventricles contract to push blood into the blood vessels.
The Blood
- “River of life” Blood is a fluid tissue, it is composed of cells and fluids where blood cells and
platelets are suspended. The fluid part of the blood is called plasma.
Blood Cells and Fragments - three types of cellular components are suspended in the plasma of the
blood. These are the red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. RBC transfers oxygen and carbon
dioxide to the body, WBC help fight diseases; and platelets helps blood to clot.
Red Blood Cells - also called erythrocytes (erythro means red, cytes means cells) its center is thinner
than its edges. They don’t have a nucleus and no mitochondria. RBC’s carry oxygen to the body. They
contain red chemical pigment called hemoglobin, it helps carry carbon dioxide from the capillaries back
to the lungs.
White Blood Cells - also known as “leukocytes” (leuko means white, cytes means cells) colorless and do
not contain hemoglobin. Larger than RBC but fewer in number, it contains a nucleus. The main task of
WBC is to protect the body from diseases caused by bacteria.
Blood Platelets - or thrombocytes are not true cells but fragments of cytoplasm with nucleus from large
bone marrow cells known as “megakaryocytes”. They play a part in clotting of blood.
Blood Vessels
- The three types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Arteries - blood vessels that move blood away from the heart.
Veins - move blood with wastes towards the heart, prevents the backflow of blood and keeps its flow in
one direction
Capillaries - tiny blood vessels
Lesson IIII. Body Circulation
The heart pumps blood throughout the body in a continuous circulatory system, it is divided into two parts.
The Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation.
Pulmonary Circulation - transports oxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. Its main function is to
oxygenate blood.
Systemic Circulation - carries oxgenated blood from the heart to the organs and tissues. This moves
blood from the heart tto all of the body organs and tissues back to the heart again.
Disorders of the Blood Vessels
Atherosclerosis - disease of the arteries that is associated with cholesterol build up called plaque inside
the walls of the arteries.
Stroke - disorder that results from a blockage caused by hardening of arteries in the brain or in the neck
vessels leading to the brain. Stroke can also occur due to hemorrhage where a diseased artery suddenly
bursts. This is called cerebral hemorrhage, occurs when a patient has atherosclerosis and high blood
pressure.
Disease of the Heart
Coronary Heart Disease - inability of blood to reach the coronary arteries of the heart. Because of aging
and atherosclerosis, the walls of the arteries may thicken and blood volume may be reduced. Myocardinal
Infarction is the technical term for a heart attack.
Hypertensive Heart Disease - elevated blood pressure, results from the narrowing of the arterioles (the
smallest arteries)
Rheumatic Heart Disease - usually occurs in children, it begins with untreated bacterial infection caused
by Streptococcus pyogenes.
Disorders of the Blood
Hemophilia - the blood does not clot properly which leads to uncontrollable bleeding.
Anemia - a condition wherein the red blood count stays persistently low.
Leukemia - a disorder characterized by abnormal increase in the number of white blood cells.
Lesson IIII. Genetics
Genetic studies hereditary information, it deals with the mechanism of heredity. Heredity refers to the
transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Types of genetics
Mendelian or Classical Genetics - reviews the basic law of inheritance that were described by the
Austrian botanis Gregor Mendel.
Molecular Genetics - biochemical nature of the gene
Population Genetics - focuses on the behavior of the gene in a group of organisms
● Mendel bred different varieties of garden peas (Pisum sativum) and cross-pollinating flowers that
had easily distinguishable traits with contrasting forms. Such as contrasting expressions or
alternative forms of a trait called alleles.
The garden pea is an ideal subject for the study of genetics because of the following reasons:
- Presence of observable traits with contrasting forms
- Production of many offspring in one cross
- Short life cycle
- Ease of manipulating pollination (cross-pollination)
Monohybrid Inheritance
● Mendel cross-pollinated garden peas with contrasting expressions. Inheritance involving one pair
of contrasting characters (alleles) is called monohybrid inheritance. Mendel crossed two
pure-breeding garden peas; one with purple flower and a white flower, this type of cross is called
a monohybrid cross. The parental generation are the first two organisms that are crossed in a
breeding experiment.
Predicting the results of Genetic Crosses
The expected results of a genetic cross can be predicted using a Punnet Square. A Punnet square is a
diagram made of grids. It is used to predict the expected results of genetic cross by considering all the
possible combinations of gametes in the corss. It was named after its inventor Reginald Punnet.
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