ELECTRIC DRIVE TRAINS:

Electric Vehicle (EV) Configurations

Compared to HEV, the configuration of EV is flexible. The reasons for this flexibility are:
The energy flow in EV is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than
bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Hence, distributed subsystems in the EV are
really achievable.
The EVs allow different propulsion arrangements such as independent four
wheels and in wheel drives.
In Figure 1 the general configuration of the EV is shown. The EV has three major
subsystems:
Electric propulsion
Energy source
Auxiliary system
The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
The electronic controller
Power converter
Electric Motor(EM)
Mechanical transmission
Driving wheels

The energy source subsystem consists of

The energy source (battery, fuel cell, ultracapacitor)
Energy management unit
Energy refueling unit
The auxiliary subsystem consists of
Power steering unit
Temperature control unit
Auxiliary power supply

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 In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the
electrical link and the blue line represents the control information communication.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller provides proper control signals to switch on or off the power converter
which in turn regulates the power flow between the electric motor and the energy
source. The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerative energy can be stored provided the energy source is receptive.
The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control
regenerative braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling
unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the energy source.
The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels
for all EV auxiliaries, especially the temperature control and power steering units.

Electricpropulsionsubsystem

Wheel

Electronic Power Electric Mechanical

controller converter motor transmission
Brake

Wheel

Accelerator

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Energy Power steering
unit source Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit

Energy source
subsystem
Auxiliary subsystem

Figure 1:General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

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 Three phase motors are generally used to provide the tractionforce
The power converter is a three-phase PWMinverter
Mechanical transmission is based on fixed gearing and adifferential
Li-ion battery is typically selected as the energy source
The typical setup of the EV is shown in Figure2.

Electricpropulsionsubsystem Wheel

Brake 3-phase
Electronic 3-phase Mechanical
PWM transmission
controller AC motor
inverter

Accelerator
Wheel

Energy Auxiliary Power

management Battery Pack Power steering
unit Supply unit
Steering
wheel

Energy Temperature
refueling control
unit unit
Energysource
subsystem
Auxiliarysubsystem

Figure 2:Typical Configuration of a Electric Vehicle [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration
There are many possible EV configurations due the variations in electric propulsion
and energy sources. Based on these variations, six alternatives are possible as shown
in Figure 3. These six alternativesare
In Figure 3a a single EM configuration with gearbox (GB) and a clutch is
shown. It consists of an EM, a clutch (C), a gearbox, and a differential (D).
The clutch enables the connection or disconnection of power flow from EM to
the wheels. The gear consists of a set of gears with different gear ratios. With
the use of clutch and gearbox, the driver can shift the gear ratios and hence the
torque going to the wheels can be changed. The wheels have high torque low
speed in the lower gears and high-speed low torque in the highergears.

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 In Figure 3b a single EM configuration without the gearbox and the clutch is
shown. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight of the
transmission is reduced. However, this configuration demands a more
complex control of the EM to provide the necessary torque to thewheels.
Figure 3c shows a configuration of EV using one EM. It is a transverse front
EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and differential and
they are integrated into a singleassembly.
In Figure 3d a dual motor configuration is shown. In this configuration the
differential action of an EV when cornering can be electronically provided by
two electricmotors.
In order to shorten the mechanical transmission path from the EM to the
driving wheel, the EM can be placed inside a wheel. This configuration is
called in-wheel drive. Figure 3e shows this configuration in which fixed
planetary gearing is employed to reduce the motor speed to the desired wheel
speed.
In Figure 3f an EV configuration without any mechanical gearing is shown.
By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drive can be
realized by installing a low speed outer-rotor electric motor inside awheel.

C
M GB D M FG D

Figure 3a: EV configuration with clutch, gearbox and Figure 3b: EV configuration without clutch and gearbo
differential [1] [1]
x

M
FG
M

FG
D M
FG

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 FG
M

M
FG

Figure 3e:EV configuration with in Figure 3f:EV configuration with in

wheel motor and wheel motor and no
mechanical gear [1] mechanical gear [1]

Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Power Source Configuration

Besides the variations in electric propulsion, there are other EV configurations due to
variations in energy sources. There are five configurations possible and they are:
Configuration 1: It is a simple battery powered configuration, Figure 4a. The
battery may be distributed around the vehicle, packed together at the vehicle
back or located beneath the vehicle chassis. The battery in this case should
have reasonable specific energy and specific power and should be able to
accept regenerative energy during braking. In case of EVs, the battery should
have both high specific energy and specific power because high specific
power governs the driving range while the high power density governs the
acceleration rate and hill climbingcapability.
Configuration 2: Instead of two batteries, this design uses two different
batteries, Figure 4b. One battery is optimized for high specific energy and the
other for high specificpower.
Configuration 3: In this arrangement fuel cell is used, Figure 4c. The battery
is an energy storage device, whereas the fuel cell is an energy generation
device. The operation principle of fuel cells is a reverse process of electrolysis.
In reverse and electrolysis, hydrogen and oxygen gases combine to form
electricity and water. The hydrogen gas used by the fuel cell can be stored in
an on-board tank whereas oxygen gas is extracted from air. Since fuel cell can
offer high specific energy but cannot accept regenerative energy, it is
preferable to combine it with battery with high specific power and high-energy
receptivity.

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Configuration 4: Rather than storing it as a compressed gas, a liquid or a
metal hydride, hydrogen can be can be generated on-board using liquid fuels
such as methanol, Figure 4d. In this case a mini reformer is installed in the
EV to produce necessary hydrogen gas for the fuelcell.
Configuration 5: In fuel cell and battery combination, the battery is selected
to provide high specific power and high-energy receptivity. In this
configuration a battery and supercapacitor combination is used as an energy
source, Figure 4e. The battery used in this configuration is a high energy
density device whereas the supercapacitor provides high specific power and
energy receptivity. Usually, the supercapacitors are of relatively low voltage
levels, an additional dc-dc power converter is needed to interface between the
battery and capacitorterminals.

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 Single and Multi-motor Drives
A differential is a standard component for conventional vehicles. When a vehicle is
rounding a curved road, the outer wheel needs to travel on a larger radius than the
inner wheel. Thus, the differential adjusts the relative speeds of the wheels. If relative
speeds of the wheels are not adjusted, then the wheels will slip and result in tire wear,
steering difficulties and poor road holding. In case of EVs, it is possible to dispense
the mechanical differential by using two or even four EMs. With the use of multiple
EMs, each wheel can be coupled to an EM and this will enable independent control of
speed of each wheel in such a way that the differential action can be electronically
achieved. In Figure 5, a typical dual motor drive with an electronic differential is
shown.

Wheel Whee
out > l
in
in
out
EM 2
EM 1 with fixed
with fixed gearing
gearing

Figure 5: Differential action [1]

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In Wheel Drives
By placing an electric motor inside the wheel, the in wheel motor has the advantage
that the mechanical transmission path between the electric motor and the wheel can be
minimized. Two possible configurations for in wheel drives are:
When a high-speed inner-rotor motor is used (Figure 6a) then a fixed speed-
reduction gear becomes necessary to attain a realistic wheel speed. In general,
speed reduction is achieved using a planetary gear set. This planetary gear is
mounted between the motor shaft and the wheel rim. Usually this motor is
designed to operate up to 1000 rpm so as to give high powerdensity.
In case outer rotor motor is used (Figure 6b), then the transmission can be
totally removed and the outer rotor acts as the wheel rim and the motor speed
is equivalent to the wheel speed and no gears arerequired.
The tradeoffs of the high-speed inner rotor motor are:
It has the advantage of smaller size, lighter weight and lowercost
Needs additional planetary gearset
The tradeoffs of outer-rotor motorare
Low speed and hence does not need additional gears
The drawbacks are larger size, weight and cost because of the low speed
design.

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NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

Considerations of EMs used in EVs

The requirements of EMs used in EVs are:
Frequent start/stop
High rate of acceleration and deceleration
High torque low speed hill climbing
Low torque cruising
Very wide speed range of operation
The EMs for EVs are unique and their major differences with respect to
industrial motors in load requirement, performance specification and operating
environment are as follows:
EV motors need to produce the maximum torque that is four to five
times of the rated torque for acceleration and hill climbing, while
industrial motors generally offer the maximum torque that is twice of
the rated torque for overload operation
EV motors need to achieve four to five times the base speed for
highway cruising, while industrial motors generally achieve up to
twice the base speed for constant power operation
EV motors require high power density as well as good efficiency map
(high efficiency over wide speed and torque ranges), while industrial
motors are generally optimized to give high efficiency at a rated point.
EV motors need to be installed in mobile vehicles with harsh operating
conditions such as high temperature, bad weather and frequent
vibration, while industrial motors are generally located in fixed places.

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 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

UNIT III
ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

ELECTRICAL MACHINES IN EVS AND HEVS:

Vehicle propulsion has specific requirements that distinguish stationary and onboard motors.
Every kilogram onboard the vehicle represents an increase in structural load. This increase
structural load results in lower efficiency due to increase in the friction that the vehicle has to
overcome. Higher efficiency is equivalent to a reduction in energy demand and hence, reduced
battery weight. The fundamental requirement for traction motors used in EVs is to generate
propulsion torque over a wide speed range. These motors have intrinsically neither nominal
speed nor nominal power. The power rating mentioned in the catalog and on the name plate of
the motor corresponds to the maximum power that the drive can deliver. Two most commonly
used motors in EV propulsion are Permanent Magnet (PM) Motors and Induction Motors
(IM). These two motors will be investigated in detail in the coming lectures. However, before
going into the details of these machines some basic fundamentals of electrical machines, such
as torque production, are discussed in this chapter.
3.1 DC MOTOR DRIVES
DC motor drives have been widely used in applications requiring adjustable speed, good speed
regulation, and frequent starting, braking and reversing. Various DC motor drives have been
widely applied to different electric traction.
3.1.1. principle of operation:
The operation principle of a DC motor is straightforward. When a wire carrying electric current is
placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic force acting on the wire is produced. The force is
perpendicular to the wire and the magnetic field as shown in Figure 6.3. The magnetic force is
proportional to the wire length, magnitude of the electric current, and the density of the magnetic
field, that is,

eq1

When the wire is shaped into a coil, as shown in Figure 6.3, the magnetic forces acting on both sides
produce a torque, which is expressed as

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Figure 3.1: Operation principle of a DC motor
 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

where is the angle between the coil plane and magnetic field as shown in Figure 3.1. The magnetic
field may be produced by a set of windings or permanent magnets. The former is called wound-field
DC motor and the latteris called the PM DC motor.
The coil carrying the electric current is called thearmature. In practice, the armature consists of a
number of coils. In order to obtain continuous and maximum torque, slip rings and brushes are used
toconduct each coil at the position of =0.
Practically, the performance of DC motors can be described by the armaturevoltage, back
electromotive force (EMF), and field flux.Typically, there are four types of wound-field DC motors,
depending onthe mutual interconnection between the field and armature windings. Theyare
separately excited, shunt excited, series excited, and compound excitedas shown in Figure 3.2.
In the case of a separately excited motor, the field and armature voltage can be controlled
independently of one another.
In a shunt motor, the field and armature are connected in parallel to a common source. Therefore,
an independent control of field current and armature or armature voltage can be achieved by
inserting a resistance into the appropriate circuit.
This is an inefficient method of control. The efficient method is to use power electronics-based DC
DC converters in the appropriate circuit to replace the resistance.
The DC DC converters can be actively controlled to produce proper armature and field voltage. In
the case of a series motor, the field current is the same as the armature current; therefore, field flux
is a function of
armature current.
In a cumulative compound motor, the magnetomotive force (mmf) of a series field is a function of
the armature current and is in thesame direction as the mmf of the shunt field.

Figure 3.2: Wound-field DC motors

The steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature of a DC motor is shownin Figure 3.3. The resistor
Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit. For separatelyexcited and shunt DC motors, it is equal to
the resistance of the armaturewindings; for the series and compound motors, it is the sum of
armatureand series field winding resistances.

Figure 3.3: Steady-state equivalent circuit of the armature circuit of a DC motor

Basic Joint
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 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

eq3
where is the flux per pole in Webers, Iais the armature current in A, Va is the armature voltage in
volt, Ra is the resistance of the armature circuit in ohms, mis the speed of the armature in rad/sec,
T is the torque developed by the motor in Nm, and Keis constant.
From equations 3 one can obtain

Equations 3 are applicable to all the DC motors, namely, separately (or shunt) excited, series, and
compound motors. In the case of separately excited motors, if the field voltage is maintained as
constant, one can assume the flux to be practically constant as the torque changes. In this case, the
speed torque characteristic of a separately excited motor is a straight line, as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4Speed characteristics of DC motors

The nonload speed m0 is determined by the values of the armature voltage and the field excitation.
Speed decreases as torque increases, and speed regulation depends on the armature circuit
resistance. Separately excited motors are used in applications requiring good speed regulation and
proper adjustable speed.
In the case of series motors, the flux is a function of armature current. Inan unsaturated region of the
magnetization characteristic, can be assumed to be proportional to Ia. Thus

By equations 3&5, the torque for series excited DC motors can obtained as

A speed torque characteristic of a series DC motor is shown in Figure 3.4.In the case of series, any
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increase in torque is accompanied by an increase in the armature current and, therefore, an increase
 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

in magnetic flux. Because flux increases with the torque, the speed drops to maintain a balance
between the induced voltage and the supply voltage. The characteristic, therefore, shows a dramatic
drop. A motor of standard design works at the knee point of the magnetization curve at the rated
torque. At heavy torque (large current) overload, the magnetic circuit saturates and the speed torque
curve approaches a straight line.
Series DC motors are suitable for applications requiring high starting torqueand heavy torque
overload, such as traction. This was just the case for electrictraction before the power electronics
and micro control era. However, series DC motors for traction application have some disadvantages.
They are notallowed to operate without load torque with full supply voltage. Otherwise,
their speed will quickly increase up to a very high value . Another disadvantage is the difficulty in
regenerative braking. Performance equations for cumulative compound DC motors can be
derived from equations (3).
The speed torque characteristics arebetween series and separately excited (shunt) motors, as shown
in Figure 3.4.

3.1.2. COMBINED ARMATURE VOLTAGE AND FIELD CONTROL

The independence of armature voltage and field provides more flexible control of the speed and
torque than other types of DC motors. In EV and HEVapplications, the most desirable speed torque
characteristic is to have a constant torque below a certain speed (base speed), with the torque
dropping parabolically with the increase of speed (constant power) in the range abovethe base speed,
as shown in Figure 6.7. In the range of lower than base speed, the armature current and field are set
at their rated values, producing the rated torque. From equations (3), it is clear that the armature
voltage must be increased proportionally with the increase of the speed. At thebase speed, the
armature voltage reaches its rated value (equal to the source voltage) and cannot be increased
further. In order to further increase thespeed, the field must be weakened with the increase of the
speed, and then the back EMF E and armature current must be maintained constant. The torque
produced drops parabolically with the increase in the speed and the output power remains constant,
as shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure3.5: Torque and power limitations in combined armature voltage and field control

3.1.3. CHOPPER CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

Choppers are used for the control of DC motors because of a number of advantages such as high
efficiency, flexibility in control, light weight, small size, quick response, and regeneration down to
very low speeds. Presently, the separately excited DC motors are usually used in traction, due to the
control flexibility of armature voltage and field.
For a DC motor control in open-loop and closed-loop configurations, the chopper offers a number of
advantages due to its high operation frequency. High operation frequency results in high-frequency
outputJoint
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 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

of discontinuous conduction in the speed torque plane. A reduction in the armature current ripple
reduces the armature losses. A reduction or elimination of the discontinuous conduction region
improves speed regulation and the transient response of the drive.
The power electronic circuit and the steady-state waveform of a DC chopper drive are shown in
Figure 3.6

Figure3.6: Principle of operation of a step down (or class A) chopper: (a) basic chopper circuit; (b)
to (e)waveforms
ADC voltage source, V, supplies an inductive load through a self-commutated semiconductor switch
S. The symbol of a self-commutated semiconductor switch has been used because a chopper can be
built using any device among thyristors with a forced commutation circuit: GTO, power transistor,
MOSFET, and IGBT. The diode shows the direction in which the device can carry current. A diode
DF is connected in parallel with the load. The semiconductor switch S is operated periodically over
a period T and remains closed for a timeton= Twith 0 1. The variable =ton/T is called the duty
ratio or duty cycle of a chopper. Figure 6.8also shows the waveform of control signal ic. Control
signal icwill be the base current for a transistor chopper, and a gate current for the GTO of a GTO

chopper or the main thyristor of a thyristor chopper. If a power MOSFET isused, it will be a gate to
the source voltage. When the control signal is present, the semiconductor switch S will conduct, if
forward biased. It is assumed that the circuit operation has been arranged such that the
removaloficwill turn off the switch.
During the on interval of the switch (0 t T), the load is subjected to a voltageVand the load current
increases from ia1 to ia2. The switch is opened att= T. During the off period of the switch ( T t 1),
the load inductance maintains the flow of current through diode DF. The load terminal voltage
remains zero (if the voltage drop on the diode is ignored in comparison to V)and the current
decreases from ia2 to ia1. The internal 0 t T is called the duty interval and the interval T t T is
known as the freewheeling interval.
Diode DF provides a path for the load current to flow when switch S isoff, and thus improves the
load current waveform. Furthermore, by maintaining the continuity of the load current at turn off, it
prevents transient voltage from appearing across switch S, due to the sudden change of the
load current.
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The source current waveform is also shown in Figure 6.8e. The source current flows only during the
duty interval and is equal to the load current. The direct component or average value of the load
voltage Va is given by

By controlling between 0 and 1, the load voltage can be varied from 0 to V;thus, a chopper allows
a variable DC voltage to be obtained from a fixed voltage DC source. The switch S can be controlled
in various ways for varying the duty ratio .
The control technologies can be divided into the following categories:
1. Time ratio control (TRC).
2. Current limit control (CLC).
In TRC, also known as pulse width control, the ratio of on time to chopper period is controlled. The
TRC can be further divided as follows:
1. Constant frequency TRC:
2. The chopper period T is kept fixed and
the on period of the switch is varied to control the duty ratio .
3. Varied frequency TRC:
4. Here, is varied either by keeping ton constantand varying T or by varying both ton and T.
In variable frequency control with constant on-time, low-output voltage is obtained at very low
values of chopper frequencies. The operation of a chopper at low frequencies adversely affects the
motor performance. Furthermore, the operation of a chopper with variable frequencies makes the
design of an input filter very difficult. Thus, variable frequency control israrely used.

In current limit control, also known as point-by-point control, is controlled indirectly by

controlling the load current between certain specified maximum and minimum values. When the
load current reaches a specified maximum value, the switch disconnects the load from the source
and reconnectsItwhen the current reaches a specified minimum value. For a DC motor load, this
type of control is, in effect, a variable frequency variable on time control.
The following important points can be noted from the waveform ofFigure3.5:

1. The source current is not continuous but flows in pulses. The pulsed current makes the peak input
power demand high and may cause fluctuation in the source voltage. The source current waveform
can be resolved into DC and AC harmonics. The fundamental AC harmonic frequency is the same
as the chopper frequency. The AC harmonics are undesirable because they interfere with other loads
connected to the DC source and cause radio frequency interference through conduction and
electromagnetic radiation. Therefore, anL-C filter is usually incorporated between the chopper and
the DC source. At higher chopper frequencies, harmonics can be reduced toa tolerable level by a
cheaper filter. From this point, a chopper should be operated at the highest possible frequency.
2. The load terminal voltage is not a perfect direct voltage. In addition to a direct component, it has
harmonics of the chopping frequency and its multiples. The load current also has an AC ripple.
The chopper of Figure 3.6 is called a class A chopper. It is one of a numberof chopper circuits that
are used for the control of DC motors. This chopperis capable of providing only a positive voltage
and a positive current. It istherefore called a single-quadrant chopper, capable of providing
DCseparatelyexcited motor control in the first quadrant, positive speed, and positivetorque. Since it
can vary the output voltage from V to 0, it is also a step-downchopper or a DC to DC buck
converter. The basic principle involved can alsobe used to realize a step-up chopper or DC to
DCboostconverter. The circuit diagram and steady-state waveforms of a step-up chopper areshown
in Figure 3.6. This chopper is known as a class B chopper. The presence of control signal icindicates
the duration for which the switch can conduct
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if forward-biased. During a chopping period T, it remains closed for aninterval 0 t T and remains
open for an interval T t T. During the on period, iSincreases from iS1 to iS2, thus increasing the
magnitude of energystored in inductance L. When the switch is opened, current flows through the
parallel combination of the load and capacitor C. Since the current isforced against the higher
voltage,the rate of change of the current is negative. It decreases from iS2 to iS
period. The energy storedin the inductance L and the energy supplied by the low-voltage source
aregiven to the load. The capacitor C serves two purposes. At the instant ofopening of switch S, the
source current, iS, and load current, ia, are not the same. In the absence of C, the turn off of S will
force the two currents to have the same values. This will cause high induced voltage in the
inductance Land the load inductance. Another reason for using capacitor C is to reduce the load
voltage ripple. The purpose of the diode D is to prevent any flow ofcurrent from the load into switch
S or source V.
For understanding the step-up operation, capacitor C is assumed to be large enough to maintain a
constant voltage Va across the load. The averagevoltage across the terminal a, b is given as

Figure3.7:Principle of operation of a step-up (or class B) chopper: (a) basic chopper circuit; (b) to

(d)waveforms

The average voltage across the inductance L is

The source voltage is

Substituting from equations (8) and (9) into (10) gives

.eq11
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According to (11), theoretically the output voltage Va can be changed fromVto by controlling
from 0 to 1. In practice, Va can be controlled from V to a higher voltage, which depends on the
capacitor C, and the parametersof the load and chopper.
The main advantage of a step-up chopper is the low ripple in the source current. While most
applications require a step-down chopper, the step-up chopper finds application in low-power
battery-driven vehicles. The principle of the step-up chopper is also used in the regenerative braking
ofDC motor drives.
3.1.4. MULTIQUADRANT CONTROL OF CHOPPER-FED DC MOTOR DRIVES:
The application of DC motors on EVs and HEVs requires the motors to operate in Multiquadarant,
including forward motoring, forward braking, backward motoring, and backward braking, as shown
in Figure 3.8. For vehicles with reverse mechanical gears, two-quadrant operation (forward
motoring and forward braking, or quadrant I and quadrant IV) is required. However, for vehicles
without reverse mechanical gears, four-quadrant operation is needed. Multiquadarant operation of a
separately excited DC motor is implemented by controlling the voltage poles and magnitude through
power electronics-based choppers.

Figure 3.8: Speed torque profiles of Multiquadarantoperation

3.1.5. TWO-QUADRANT CONTROL OF FORWARD MOTORING AND REGENERATIVE

BRAKING:
A two-quadrant operation consisting of forward motoring and forward regenerative braking requires
a chopper capable of giving a positive voltage and current in either direction. This two-quadrant
operation can be realizedin the following two schemes.
Single Chopper with a Reverse Switch:
The chopper circuit used for forward motoring and forward regenerative braking is shown in Figure
3.9, where S is a self-commutated semiconductorswitch, operated periodically such that it remains
closed for aduration of Tand remains open for a duration of (1- T.C is the manual switch.
When C is closed and S is in operation, the circuit is similar to that of+

Figure3.9: Forward motoring and regenerative braking control with a single chopper

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 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

Under these conditions, terminal a is positive and terminal b is negative. Regenerative braking in the
forward direction is obtained when C is opened and the armature connection is reversed with the
help of the reversing switch RS, making terminal b positive and terminal a negative. During the on-
period of the switch S, the motor current flows through a path consisting of the motor armature,
switch S, and diode D1, and increases the energy stored in the armature circuit inductance. When S
is opened, the current flows through the armature diode D2, source V, diode D1 and back to the
armature, thus feeding energy into the source. During motoring, the changeover to regeneration is
done in the following steps. Switch S is deactivated and switch C is opened. This forces the armature
current to flow through diode D2, source V, and diode D1. The energy stored in the armature circuit
is fed back to the source and the armature current falls to zero. After an adequate delay to ensure that
the current has indeed become zero, the armature connection is reversed and switch S isreactivated
with a suitable value of d to start regeneration.
Class C Two-Quadrant Chopper:
In some applications, a smooth transition from motoring to braking and vice versa is required. For
such applications, the class C chopper is used as shown in Figure 3.10.

Figure3.10:Forward motoring and regenerative braking control using class C two-quadrant

chopper:(a) chopper circuit and (b) waveforms
The self-commutated semiconductor switch S1 and diodeD1 constitute one chopper and the self-
commutator switch S2 and diodeD2 form another chopper. Both the choppers are controlled
simultaneously, both for motoring and regenerative braking. The switches S1 and S2are closed
alternately. In the chopping period T, S1 is kept on for a duration T, and S2 is kept on from TtoT.
To avoid a direct, short-circuit across the source, care is taken to ensure that S1 and S2 do not
conduct at the same time. This is generally achieved by providing some delay between the turn off
of one switch and the turn on of another switch. The waveforms of the control signals vaia, and is
and theJoint initiative
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inFigure3.10(b). In drawing these waveforms, the delay between the turn off of one switch and the
turn on of another switch has been ignored because itis usually very small. The control signals for
the switches S1 and S2 are denoted by ic1 and ic2, respectively. It is assumed that a switch conducts
only when the control signal is present and the switch is forward biased.
The following points are helpful in understanding the operation of this two-quadrant circuit:

1. In this circuit, discontinuous conduction does not occur, irrespective of its frequency of operation.
Discontinuous conduction occurs interval of time. The current may become zero either during the
freewheeling interval or in the energy transfer interval. In this circuit, freewheeling willoccur when
S1 is off and the current is flowing through D1. This will happen in interval T , which is also
the interval for which S2 receives the control signal. If iafalls to zero in the freewheeling interval,
the back EMF will immediately drive a current through S2 in the reverse direction, thus preventing
the armature current from remaining zero for a finite interval of time. Similarly, energy transfer will
be present when S2 is off and D2is conducting that is, during the interval 0_t_ T. If the current
falls to zero during this interval, S1 will conductimmediatelybecauseicis present and V_E. The
armature current will flow, preventing discontinuous conduction.
2. Since discontinuous conditions are absent, the motor current will be flowing all the time. Thus,
during the interval 0 t T, the motor armature will be connected either through S1 or D2.
Consequently, the motor terminal voltage will be V and the rate of change of iawill be positive
because V>E. Similarly, during the interval T t T, the motor armature will be shorted either
through D1 or S2. Consequently, the motor voltage will be zero and the rate of change of iawill be
negative.
3. During the interval 0 t T, the positive armature current is carried byS1 and the negative
armature current is carried by D2. The source current flows only during this interval and it is equal
to ia. During the interval T t T, the positive current is carried by D1and the negative current is
carried by S2.
4. From the motor terminal voltage waveform of Figure 3.10 Va= V. Hence,

Equation (12) suggests that the motoring operation takes place when =E/V, and that regenerative
braking occurs when =E/V. The no-loadoperation is obtained when =E/V.
3.1.6. FOUR-QUADRANT OPERATION:
The four-quadrant operation can be obtained by combining two class C choppers (Figure 3.10) as
shown in Figure 3.11,

Figure3.11: Class E four-quadrant chopper

which is referred to as a class Echopper. In this chopper, if S2 is kept closed continuously and S1
and S4 are controlled, a two-quadrant chopper is obtained, which provides positive terminal voltage
(positive speed) and the armature current in either direction (positive or negative torque), giving a
motor control in quadrants I and IV. Now if S3 is kept closed continuously and S1 and S4 are
controlled, one obtains
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two-quadrant
IISc Fundedchopper,
by MHRDwhich can supply a variable
Page negative
63of 43 terminal
voltage (negative speed) and the armature current can be in either direction (positive or negative
 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

torque), giving a motor control in quadrants II and III.This control method has the following
features: the utilization factor of the switches is low due to the asymmetry in the circuit operation.
Switches S3 andS2 should remain on for a long period. This can create commutation problems when
the switches use thyristors. The minimum output voltage depends directly on the minimum time for
which the switch can be closed, since there is always a restriction on the minimum time for which
the switch can be closed, particularly in thyristor choppers.47 The minimum available output
voltage, and therefore the minimum available motor speed, is restricted. To ensure that switches S1
and S4, or S2 and S3 are not on at the same time, some fixed time interval must elapse between the
turn off for one switch and the turn on of another switch. This restricts the maximum permissible
frequency of operation. It also requires two switching operations during a cycle of the output
voltage.

3.2. INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES:

Commutator fewer motor drives offer a number of advantages over conventional DC commutator
motor drives for the electric propulsion of EVs andHEVs. At present, induction motor drives are the
mature technology among commutator less motor drives. Compared with DC motor drives,
theACinduction motor drive has additional advantages such as lightweight nature, small volume,
low-cost, and high efficiency. These advantages are particularly important for EV and
HEVapplications. There are two types of induction motors, namely, wound-rotor and squirrel cage
motors. Because of the high cost, need for maintenance, and lack of sturdiness, wound-rotor
induction motors are less attractive than their squirrel-cage counterparts, especially for electric
propulsion in EVs and HEVs.Hence, squirrel-cage induction motors are loosely termed as induction
motors.

Figure1: Cross-section of an induction motor

A cross section of a two-pole induction motor is shown in Figure 1. Slots in the inner periphery of
the stator are inserted with three phase windings, a a , b b , and c c . The turns of each winding
are distributed such that the current in the winding produces an approximate sinusoidally distributed
flux density around the periphery of the air gap.
The three windings are spatially arranged by 120º as shown in Figure 1. The most common types of
induction motor rotors are the squirrel cage inwhich aluminium bars are cast into slots in the outer
periphery of the rotor. Thealuminium bars are short-circuited together at both ends of the rotor by
cast aluminium end rings, which can also be shaped into fans.

3.2.1. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF INDUCTION MOTOR (MATHEMATICAL

TREATMENT):
In Figure 1 a cross section of the stator of a three phase, two pole induction motor is shown. The
stator Joint initiative
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of three and IISc
blocks Funded
of iron by MHRD
spaced at 120° apart. The three coils arePage 64of 43 in Y and
connected
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energized from a three-phase system. When the stator windings are energized from a three-phase
system, the currents in the coils reach their maximum values at different instants. Since the three
currents are displaced from each other by 120° electrical, their respective flux contributions will also
be displaced by 120° electrical. Let a balanced three phase current be applied to the stator with the
phase sequence A-B-C

The instantaneous flux produced by the stator will hence be

The resultant flux at an angle from the axis of phase A is

Substituting equation 2 into equation 3 gives

4
From equation 4 it can be seen that the resultant flux has amplitude of 1.5 , is a sinusoidal
function of angle and rotates in synchronism with the supply frequency. Hence, it is called a
rotating field.

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3.2.2. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF INDUCTION MOTOR (GRAPHICAL

TREATMENT):
Let the synchronous frequency
t=60sec, t=120sec, t=180 sec, t=240sec and t=300sec and are shown in Figure 2. The explanation of the
flux creation is as follows
At t=0, phase A is a maximum north pole, while phase B and phase C are weak south poles,
Figure (2a).
At t=60, phase C is a strong south pole, while phase B and phase A are weak north poles Figure
(2b).
At t=120, phase B is a strong north pole, while phase A and phase C are weak south poles
Figure (2c).
At t=180, phase A is a strong south pole, while phase B and phase C are weak north poles
Figure (2a).
At t=240, phase C is a strong north pole, while phase A and phase B are weak south poles
Figure (2e).
At t=300, phase B is s strong south pole, while phase C and phase A are weak north poles
Figure (2f).

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3.2.3. FLUXES AND MMF IN INDUCTION MOTOR:

Although the flux generated by each coil is only alternating flux, the combined flux contributions of
the three coils, carrying current at appropriate sequential phase angles, produces a two pole rotating
flux.
The rotating flux produced by three phase currents in the stationary coils, may be linked to the
rotating field produced by a magnet sweeping around the rotor (Figure 3a). The rotating field cuts
the rotor bars in its anti-clockwise
current and flux generated by the relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field will be
in a direction to oppose the relative motion. From Figure 3a it can be seen that the bars a and b are
just under the pole centres and have maximum electromotive force (e.m.f) generated in them and
this is indicated by large cross and dots. The bars away from the pole centreshave reduced
magnitude of generated e.m.fs and these are indicated by varying sizes of dots and crosses. If the
rotor circuit is assumed purely resistive, then current in any bar is in phase with the e.m.f generated
in thatJoint
bar (Figure 3a).
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The existence of currents in the rotor circuit gives rise to rotor mmf F2, which lags behind airgap
flux mby a space angle of 90°. The rotor mmf causes the appearance two poles N2and S2. The
relative speed between the poles N1,S1and the rotor poles N2, S2is zero. Rotating pole N1repels 2
Nbut attracts S2. Consequently, the electromagnetic torque developed by the interaction of the
airgap flux m and the rotor mmf F2is in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic field
(Figure 3b). The space phase angle between F2and called the load angle and for this case it is
90° (Figure 32b). The torque produce is given by

........................eq1

In actual machine, the rotor bars are embedded in the iron, hence the rotor circuit has leakage
reactance. Thus the rotor current in each bar lags behind the generated e.m.f in that bar by rotor
power factor angle:

..................eq2

From Figure 4 it is seen that bars a and b under the poles have a maximum generated e.m.fs. On
account of the rotor reactance ( ), the currents in these bars will be maximum only when the
poles have traveled through an angle (Figure 4). The rotor current generates rotor mmf is
space displaced from the air gap flux by a load angle .
The torque produced by the motor in this situation is

.....................eq3

Greater the value of , greater is the departure of load angle from its optimal value of and lesser is the
torque. To generate a high starting torque, should be made as small as possible and this is done by
Jointrotor
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3.2.4.ROTOR ACTION:
At standstill, rotor conductors are being cut by rotating flux wave at synchronous speed . Hence,
the frequency of the rotor e.m.f and current is equal to the input voltage frequency .When the
rotor rotates at a speed of rotations per second (r.p.s) in the direction of rotating flux wave, the
relative speed between synchronously rotating flux and rotor conductors becomes( - )r.p.s.

Where P is the no of poles of a machine

Hence, the slip of the machine is definedas

.............................eq5

Thus, the rotor frequency is defined as

..................................eq6

At standstill the rotor frequency is and the field produced by rotor currents revolves at a speed
equal to w.r.t. rotor structure. When the rotor rotates at a speed of nr, the rotor frequency is
and the rotor produced field revolves at a speed of /P= w.r.t. rotor structure. The rotor is
already rotating at a speed of w.r.t. stator. Hence, the speed of rotor field w.r.t. to stator is equal to
the sum of mechanical rotor speed nr and rotor field speed w.r.t. rotor. Hence, the speed of the
rotor field with respect to stator is given by
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..............................eq7

The stator and rotor fields are stationary with respect to each other at all possible rotor speeds.
Hence, a steady torque is produced by their interaction. The rotor of an induction motor can never
attain synchronous speed. If does so then the rotor conductors will be stationary w.r.t. the
synchronously rotating rotor conductors and hence, rotor m.m.f. would be zero.
3.2.5. ROTOR E.M.F AND EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:
Let the rotor e.m.f. at standstill be . When the rotor speed is , the slip is 0.6 and the relative
speed between rotating field and rotor conductors is . Hence, the induced e.m.f. , per phase, in
the rotor is

.................eq8

In general, for any value of slipS , the per phase induced e.m.f in the rotor conductors is equal to .
The other quantities of the rotor are given as

The rotor leakage reactance at standstill is

......................eq9
The rotor leakage reactance at any slip s is

............................eq10
The rotor leakage impedance at standstill is

................................eq11
At any slip s rotor leakage impedance is

................................eq12
The per phase rotor current at standstill is

...............................eq13
The per phase rotor current at any slip s is

..........................eq14

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3.2.6.COMPLETE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The rotating air gap flux generates back e.m.f. ( ) in all the three phases of the stator.
The stator applied terminal voltage has to overcome back e.m.f. and the stator
leakage impedance drop:

........................eq1
The stator current consists of following two components, and . The component the load
component and counteracts the rotor m.m.f. The other component creates the resultant air gap
flux and provides the core loss. This current can be resolved into two components: c I in phase
with 1 E and I lagging 1 E by 90o. In the equivalent circuit of the stator shown in Figure 6, and
are taken into account by a parallel branch, consisting of core-loss resistance in parallel to
magnetizing reactance .

The rotor e.m.f. when referred to stator becomes

................................eq2
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Where and are the no of turns in stator and Rotor respectively

The rotor leakage impedance when referred to the stator is

...............................eq3

After referred the rotor quantities towards stator, the combined equivalent circuit of the machine is
shown in Figure 7. For simplicity the prime notations will not be used in the further discussions and
all the rotor quantities henceforth will be referred to the stator side. Moreover, all the quantities are
at stator frequency.

3.2.7. SIMPLIFICATION EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

The use of exact equivalent circuit is laborious; hence some simplifications are done in the
equivalent circuit. Under normal operating conditions of constant voltage and frequency, core loss in
induction motors is usually constant. Hence, the core loss component can be omitted from the
equivalent circuit, Figure 8. However, to determine the shaft power, the constant core loss must be
taken into account along with friction, windage and stray load losses. It should be noted that all the
quantities used in the equivalent circuit are per phase quantities. Steady state performance
parameters of the induction motor, such as current, speed, torque, losses etc. can be computed from
the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 8.

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3.2.8. ANALYSIS OF EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

The total power transferred across the air gap ( ) from the stator is

................................eq4

Where is the no of phases

Hence, the rotor Ohmic loses and the internal mechanical power are given as

..................................eq5

..........................eq6
The internal (gross or air gap or the electromagnetic torque) torque developed per phase is given by

.............................eq7

where is the rotor speedand is the synchronous speed

The output or the shaft power is

Joint initiative of IITs and IISc Funded by MHRD ......................eq8

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When the torque-slip or power-

to the induction motor equivalent circuit reduces the computation complexity. For applying
Figure 8, two points a, b are considered as
shown in Figure 9. From these points the voltage source is viewed and the equivalent voltage at
point a and b is 1 V

.............................eq9

The equivalent impedance of the circuit as seen from points a and b is

................................eq10

For most induction motors ( + ) is much greater than . Hence, can be neglected
from the denominator of equation 22 and equation 23. The simplified expression for
and are

........................eq11

..............................eq12

.................................eq13

The airgap torque produced by the motor is

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....................................eq14

where

...........................eq15

A typical torque versus slip curve for IM obtained from equation 27 is shown in Figure 10.

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3.3. PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS:

By using high energy magnets such as rare earth-based magnets, a PM machine drive can be
designed with high power density, high speed and high operation efficiency. These advantages are
attractive for their application in EVs and HEVs. The major advantages of PM machines are:
High efficiency: The PM machines have a very high efficiency due to the use of
PMs for excitation which consume no power. Moreover, the absence of
mechanical commutators and brushes results in low mechanical friction losses.
High Power density: The use of high energy density magnets has allowed
achieving very high flux densities in the PM machines. As a result of high flux
densities, high torque can be produced from a given volume of motor compared
to other motors of same volume.
Ease of Control: THE PM motors can be controlled as easily as DC motors
because the control variables are easily accessible and constant throughout the
operation of the motor.
However, the PM machines also suffer from some disadvantages such as:
Cost: Rare-earth magnets commonly used in PM machines are very expensive.
Magnet Demagnetization: The magnets can be demagnetized by large opposing
magnetomotive force and high temperatures.
Inverter Failure: Due to magnets on the rotor, PM motors present major risks in
the case of short circuit failures of the inverters. The rotor is always energized
and constantly induces EMF in the short-circuited windings. A very large current
circulates in those windings and an accordingly large torque tends to block the
rotor. The dangers of blocking one or several wheels of a vehicle are non-
negligible.

Based on the shape of the back e.m.f induced in the stator windings, the PM motors can be classified
into two types:
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine with sinusoidal back e.m.f (Figure 1a)
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Brushless Permanent Magnet DC Machines (BLDC) with trapezoidal back e.m.f

(Figure 1b)

3.3.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF PM MACHINE:

To produce torque, in general, a rotor flux and a stator mmf has to be present that are stationary with
respect to each other but having a nonzero phase shift between them. In PM machines, the necessary
rotor flux is present due to rotor PMs. Currents in the stator windings generate the stator mmf. The
zero-relative speed between the stator mmf and the rotor flux is achieved if the stator mmf is
revolving at the same speed as the rotor flux, that is, rotor speed and also in the same direction. The
revolving stator mmf is the result of injecting a set of polyphase currents phase shifted from each
other by the same amount
of phase shift between the polyphase windings. For example, a three phase machine with three
windings shifted in space by electrical 120o between them produces a rotating magnetic field
constant in magnitude and travelling at an angular frequency of the currents (just as in case of
Induction machines). The rotor has permanent magnets on it, hence the flux produced by the rotor
magnets start to chase the stator mmf and as a result torque is produced. Since the relative speed
between the stator mmf and rotor flux has to be zero, the rotor moves at the same speed as the speed
of the Joint
statorinitiative
mmf. Hence, the IISc
of IITs and PM machines
Funded byare inherently synchronous machines.
MHRD PageAs77of
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stator experience a change of flux linkages caused by the moving magnets, there is an induced e.m.f
in the windings. The shape of the induced e.m.f is very dependent on the shape of the flux linkage. If
the rotational electrical speed of the machine and the air gap flux is sinusoidal then it can be
expressed as (Figure 3)

where is the peak flux produced

is the electrical speed of the rotation
is the mechanical speed of the rotor
is the no of poles of motor

Given the number of turns ( ), then the flux linkages ( ) are equal to the product . The
induced emf is equal to the rate of flux linkages and is given by (Figure 3):

The ve sign in equation 2 indicates that the induced e.m.f opposes the applied voltage. Some
observations based on equation 2 are:
The emf is proportional to the product of the rotational frequency and air gap for
a constant number of turns.
Assuming that air gap flux is constant, it can be seen that the e.m.f is influenced
only by the rotational speed of rotor which is same as the stator current frequency
(because the PM machines are synchronous speed) r
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By changing the frequency of stator current, the speed of the motor can be
changed and a speed control of the motor can be achieved. However, beyond a
certain speed known as base speed, an increase in stator frequency will result in
voltage demand exceeding the supply capability. During that operation, keeping
the voltage constant and increasing the excitation frequency reduces the airgap
flux and thus allowing the excitation frequency reduces the air gap flux, thus
allowing going to higher speed over and above the base speed. This operation is
known as flux weakening.

The PM machines are fed by DC-AC converter. By changing the frequency at which the gates are
turned on, the frequency of the output wave can be varied. In the next sections the operation of a
three phase PM machines with 120o and 180o conduction modes are explained. The following
assumptions are made in the following analysis:

The phases of the machines are Y connected.

The current entering the neutral point (n) is considered to be positive and leaving it is considered
to be negative. n
The back e.m.f induced in the phases is sinusoidal.
All the phases of the machine are balanced, that is, the inductances and resistances of the phases
are equal.
3.3.2.STEADY STATE CHARACTERISTICS OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS:

3.3.2.1. STEADY STATE MODELLING OF PERMANENT MAGNET MACHINES:

The PM machines are driven by the inverter and the triggering of the DC-AC converter switches is
symmetric, the waveforms of the applied stator voltage exhibit the following relationships

The voltage and current relations given in

The differential equations given in equation 2 are time-invariant. Hence, the stator currents which
form the response of the system, obey the same symmetry relations as the input voltage and can be
writtenJoint
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3.3.2.2. STEADY STATE SOLUTION FOR CONDUCTION OF THE DC-AC

CONVERTER
Due to the symmetries for the voltages and currents given by equations 1 and 3, if thesolution is
known for one basic switching interval, it can be used to generate the solutionfor the remaining
intervals. In conduction mode of DC-AC inverter, each switchconducts for . The analysis
starts when switch is turned on and is turned off Due to the inductance of the stator windings,
the current in phase B does not become zero instantaneously and continues to flow through the
freewheeling diodes or depending on the direction of the current. Once the current through the
phase B becomes zero, the diode stops conducting and only phase A and C conduct and the
equivalent circuit. The duration for which the freewheeling diodes conduct is known as
commutation period and the duration when only two phases conduct is known as conduction
period. At the start of the commutation period (when switch is turned off), the rotor angle is
defined to be

4
Where is the advance firing angle,
The duration of the commutation period is given by the commutation angle and is a function of ,
the winding inductances and resistances and rotor speed making it difficult to estimate. The
determination of current is achieved in two steps:
Step 1: In this step the general solution of the currents is obtained
Step 2: In this step the angle is determined using the symmetries given in
equations 1 and 3.
Step 1: General Solution:
At time t=0 the switch is turned on and is turned off. As discussed in the previous section, the
current does not become zero immediately and remains nonzero till the time t= . Hence, the
In this period all the three phases are connected to the DC-AC
converter and the stator voltages for are

In case , the stator phase voltages are

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Substituting from equation 2b and replacing with - in equation 2a gives,

The system of first order differential equation 7 can be expressed in standard state variable form as

where

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The solution of equation 8 is

where the initial conditions vector is

10
The solution of equation 9 for the time interval 0 t , using the initial conditions given
in equation 10, is

Since the three phases are connected in Y, the phase C current is given by

eq13
When the becomes zero at t = , the commutation period ends and the conduction period starts
with just phases A and C conducting. The duration of conduction period is . The
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differential equation given in equation 11 holds for the conduction period and the only change is in
 NPTEL Electrical Engineering Introduction to Hybrid and Electric Vehicles

u(t) and initial values of current given by

The solution of equation 9 for conduction period is

The evaluation of the integration given in equation 15gives

The phase C current is same as phase A current ( (t) = ) and phase B current is zero ( )
Step 2: Determination of Commutation Angle:
At time t 0, the switch is turned off and is turned on. Hence, at t 0 the current in
phase C is zero and the phase A and B currents are equal in magnitude. Therefore, the
initial conditions are given by

At the end of the conduction period, the currents are

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The commutation period ends when phase B current becomes zero, that is )=0. Using this condition
and initial conditions given by equation 17in equation 18 gives

Using the boundary condition given by

Using the boundary condition given by

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3.3.2.3. CONTROL STRATEGIES OF PM MACHINES:

There are various control strategies and depending on the application a suitable strategy can
bechosen. For example, a mutual flux air gap linkages control gives a smooth transition to flux
weakening above the base speed. Similarly, a maximum efficiency control is suitable forapplications
where energy saving is important such as hybrid and electric vehicles. The most commonly used
control strategies are:

Constant torque angle control

Unity power factor control
Constant mutual air gap flux linkages control
Angle control of air gap flux and current phasors
Optimum torque per ampere control
Constant loss based maximum torque speed boundary control
Minim loss or maximum efficiency control.
The control strategies marked in bold are discussed in the following sections.

Constant Torque Angle Control:

Consider that the PM motor is supplied three phase currents given as follows:

eq1

The q and d axes stator currents in the rotor reference frames are obtained through the
transformation matrix as

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Substituting the values of and from equation 2 into equation 3a gives

Having developed the basic equations, we now focus on the Constant Torque Angle Control. In this
strategy the torque angle is maintained at . Hence, the above torque equation becomes:

The q and d axis voltage for the PM machine is given by

Since the load angle , from equation 2, and equation 5 can be written as:

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For the analysis of the control strategy, it is convenient to convert equation 4 and equation 6 into
per unit (p.u) values. The base values chosen are:
base value of stator current
base value of magnet flux
base speed
base voltage =
base Resistance
base Inductance
base value of torque =
base value of reactance =
Using the base values given in equation 7 the normalized can be written as

From equation 8 it can be seen that the normalized torque ( ) is equal to the normalized stator
current . The voltage equation for steady state analysis can be obtained by making P=0 (because
in steady state the time variation is zero) in equation 6 and is written as

The magnitude of the stator voltage is given by

The normalized stator voltage is obtained as

The phasor diagram for this control strategy is shown in Figure 1. From this figure the power factor
is obtained as

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The equation 12 shows that the power factor deteriorates as the rotor speed goes up. The maximum
rotor speed with this control strategy can be obtained by solving equation 11 for , neglecting the
stator resistive drop ( ), and is given as

Assuming that the motor is driven by a three phase DC-AC converter, the maximum voltage is given by:

The performance characteristics of the PM machine are shown in Figure 2. The parameters of the
machine for a speed of 1p.u. ( =1) used to plot the curves are given in Table 1. From the Figure
2 the following can be observed:

The power factor falls as the current rises.

The torque is proportional to the current as is evident from equation 8.
The normalized increases with the increase in current. The impedance of the machine
remains constant because its speed is constant at 1p.u. hence, when the current through
the machine has to increase the applied voltage also has to increase (equation 11).

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The torque vs. speed curve for the machine, whose parameters are given in Table 1, is shown in
Figure 3. In determining the curve it has been assumed that the magnitude of the normalized stator
voltage ( ) is 1 p.u. and the maximum value of normalized stator current ( ) is fixed to 2 p.u.
From the Figure 3 the following can be observed:

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Through this control strategy, the PM machine is able to produce 2 p.u. torques up to a speed of
0.25 p.u.
The machine is able to produce 1 p.u. torque up to a speed of 0.4 p.u.
Constant Mutual Flux Linkage Control:
In this control strategy, the resultant flux linkage of the stator q and d axis and rotor is Maintained
constant. The main advantage of this control strategy is that it keeps the stator Voltage requirement
is kept low. To start with the analyses consider the flux linkage Expressionfor the q and d axis:

The magnitude of the flux linkage is given by

In this strategy, the mutual flux linkage given by equation 17 is held constant and its magnitude is
made equal to . Substituting the values of and from equation 2 into equation 17 gives

Solving equation 18 for gives

Where

The normalized current is given bu

.eq20
The stator voltage is given

.eq21
The normalized values of the stator voltage is

..eq22
The normalized voltage given by can be written as

eq23
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In order to determine the value of angle , two distinct cases have to be considered:
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When 1and 1. Once the angle is known, the torque can be obtained from equation 3.
Each of these cases are explained in the following subsections.
Case when 1
Substituting 1into equation 20 and solving for gives

The torque produced by the machine is given by

The normalized torque is given by

The performance characteristics of a PM machine at a speed of 1 p.u. are shown in Figure 4a and
the parameters of this machine are given in Table 2. The torque versus the speed characteristics of
the PM Machine are shown in Figure 4b.

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Case when 1
When 1 , using equation 20 the expression for is obtained as

The performance characteristics of the machine, whose parameters are given in Table 1, are shown
in Figure 5a and the torque versus speed characteristics is shown in Figure 5b.

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Optimum Torque per Unit Current Control:
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The aim of this control strategy is to maximize electromagnetic torque for a unit stator current. By
using this strategy the PM machine will produce maximum torque for a given magnitude of current.
To develop the mathematical models of this strategy, consider the torque equation of the PM
machine given in equation 3 and normalize it into p.u. system. The normalized torque expression is

eq28
The torque per unit stator current is defined as

The condition under which the machine produces maximum torque per unit stator current is
obtained by differentiating equation 29 with respect to and equating it to zero, that is

Using the trigonometric identity 2cos(2 ) =2 ( )-1 in equation 30 gives

The solution of equation 31 gives

In equation 32, only the value of the field in the air

gap. The performance characteristics of the PM machine (parameters of the machine are given in
Table 1) for this control strategy are shown in Figure 6a and the torque versus speed characteristics
are shown in Figure 6b.

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3.4. SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR DRIVES:

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive is considered to be an attractive candidate for variable
speed motor drives due to its low cost, rugged structure, reliable converter topology, high efficiency
over a wide speed range, and simplicity in control.43,44 These drives are suitable for EVs, electric
traction applications, automotive applications, aircraft starter/generator systems, mining drives,
washing machines, door actuators, etc.48,50,51The SRM has a simple, rugged, and low-cost
structure. It has no PM or winding on the rotor. This structure not only reduces the cost of the SRM
butalso offers high-speed operation capability for this motor. Unlike the induction and PM
machines, the SRM is capable of high-speed operation without the concern of mechanical failures
that result from the high-level centrifugal force. In addition, the inverter of the SRM drive has a
reliable topology. The stator windings are connected in series with the upper and lower switches of
the inverter. This topology can prevent the shoot-through fault that exists in the induction and
permanent motor drive inverter. Moreover, high efficiency over a wide speed range and control
simplicity are known merits of the SRM drive.43,47A conventional SRM drive system consists of
the switched reluctance motor, power inverter, sensors such as voltage, currentandpositionsensors,
and controlcircuitry such as the DSP controller and its peripherals, as shownin Figure 6.54. Through
proper control, high performance can be achieved in the SRM drive system.43,44The SRM drive
inverter is connected to a DC power supply, which can be derived from the utility lines through a
front-end diode rectifier or from batteries. The phase windings of the SRM are connected to the
power inverter, as shown in Figure 6.55. The control circuit provides a gating signal to the switches
of the inverter according to particular control strategies and the signals from various sensors.
3.4.1.FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL (FOC):
In an Electric Vehicle, it is required that the traction motor is able to deliver the required torque
almost instantaneously. In an induction motor (IM) drive, such performance can be achieved using
a class of algorithms known as Field Oriented Control (FOC). There are varieties of FOC such as:
Stator flux oriented
Rotor flux oriented
Air gap flux oriented
The basic premise of FOC may be understood by considering the current loop in a uniform magnetic
field as shown in Figure 1a. From Lorenz force equation, it can be seen that the torque acting on the
current loop is given by
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Where
B is the flux density
I is the current
N is the no of turns
L is the length of the coil
r is the radius of the coil

From equation 1 it is evident that the torque is maximized when the current vector is perpendicular
to the magnetic field. The same conclusion can be applied to an IM. In Figure 1b orientations of
magnetic fields and currents in an IM are shown. The rotor current and flux linkage vectors are
shown in Figure 1 at some instant of time. Hence, the torque produced by the motor is given by

.eq2
The equation 2 can be re-written as

The equation 3 is analogous to equation 1. Hence, for a given magnitude of flux linkage, torque is
maximized when the flux linkage and current vectors are perpendicular. Therefore, it is desirable to
keep the rotor flux linkage perpendicular to rotor current vector.
In the analysis of FOC the following convention will be used:

us frame of reference.

All rotor quantities are referred to stator using the turns ratio of the windings
In case of singly excited IMs (in singly excited IM, the rotor winding is not fed by any external
voltage source. In case of wound rotor machines, they are short circuited using slip rings. For cage
IMs, the rotor bars are short circuited at the terminals), the rotor flux linkage vector and rotor current
vector are always perpendicular. The voltage equations for the IM (refer to Lecture 19) in
synchronous frame of reference are

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Where is the rotational speed of Synchronous frame of reference

In case of singly excited IM, the rotor voltages are zero, that is =0, =0, =0. Hence, the
rotor currents can be obtained as

Since steady state operation of IM is considered, the time derivative term of flux linkage in equation
2 will vanish. Hence, the rotor currents are:

The dot product of the rotor flux linkage and rotor current vectors may be expressed as

Substituting the values of and from equation 6 into equation 7gives

Form equation 5 it can be seen that the dot product between the rotor flux and rotor current vectors
is zero in case of singly excited IM. Hence, it can be concluded that the rotor flux and rotor current
vectors are perpendicular to each other in steady state operation. The defining feature of FOC is that
this characteristic (that the rotor flux and rotor current vectors are perpendicular to each other) is
maintained during transient conditions as well. In both direct and indirect FOC, the 90o shift
between the rotor flux and rotor current vector can be achieved in two steps:
The first step is to ensure that

The second step is to ensure that

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By suitable choice of on an instantaneous basis, equation 6 can be achieved. Satisfying equation 7

can be accomplished by forcing d -axis stator current to remain constant. To see this, consider the d
-axis rotor voltage equation

Since = 0, eq10 can be written as

The d -axis rotor flux linkage is given by :

Substituting the value of from equation 10 into equation 11 gives

Is is held constant, then p =0 and the solutions of equations 13 becomes

14
Where C is Constant of integration

It is evident from equation 12 that the rotor current will decay to zero and stay at zero
regardless of other transients that may be taking place. Hence, the torque is given by

The q-axis rotor flux is given by

The above equation can be rewritten as

eq17
The generic rotor flux-oriented control shown in Figure 2.

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In Figure 2 the variables of the form, and , denote command, measured and estimated values
respectively. In case of parameters that are estimated, a
controller is as follows:
i. Based on the torque command ( ), the assumed values of the parameters
and the estimated value of d -axis rotor flux is used to formulate a q-
axis stator current command
ii. The d -axis stator current command is calculated such as to achieve a
rotor flux command .
iii. The q-axis and d -axis stator current command is then achieved using a
current source control.
The above description of rotor flux oriented FOC is incomplete with determination of and .
The difference between direct and indirect FOC is in how these two variables are determined.
DIRECT ROTOR ORIENTED FOC:
In direct FOC, the position of the synchronous reference frame ( ) is determined based on the values of
q-axis and d-axis rotor flux linkages in the stationary reference frame. The relation of flux linkages in
synchronous reference frame and stationary reference frame is

eq18
where
=is the rotor d -axis flux linkage in stationary frame of reference
= is the rotor q -axis flux linkage in stationary frame of reference
In order to achieve , it is sufficient to define the position of the synchronous reference frame as

The difficulty with this approach is that and are not directly measurable quantities.
However, they can be estimated using direct measurement
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flux, hall-effect sensors are placed in the air gap and used to measure the air-gap flux in q-axis and
d-axis. Since the hall-effect sensors are stationary, the flux measured by them is in stationary
reference frame. The flux measured by the sensors is the net flux in the air gap (combination of
stator and rotor flux). The net flux in the air gap is given by:

where

is the magnetization inductance

From equation 20, the rotor q -axis current is obtained as

The q -axis rotor flux linkage is given by

Substituting the rotor q -axis current from equation 21into equation 22gives

An identical derivation for d-axis gives

The implementation of this control strategy is shown in Figure 3a and b

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INDIRECT ROTOR ORIENTED FOC:

The direct FOC is problematic and expensive due to use of hall-effect sensors. Hence, indirect
FOC methods are gaining considerable interest. The indirect FOC methods are more sensitive
to knowledge of the machine parameters but do not require direct sensing of the rotor flux
linkages. The q-axis rotor voltage equation in synchronous frame is.

Since for direct field-oriented control, equation 25becomes

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26

Substituting the values of and substitute in above equations

From equation 27it can be observed that instead of establishing using the rotor fluxas shown in
Figure 3, it can be determined by integrating given by equation 27where is given as:

The equation 28does satisfy the conditions of FOC. In order to check it, consider the rotor voltage
equations for the q -axis and d -axis:

Substituting from equation 28 into equations 29 and 30gives

Substituting the value of fromd-axis rotor flux intoequation 32gives

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If the d -axis rotor current is held constant, then and rearranging equations 33and 34gives

In Figure 4 the implementation of indirect FOC is shown and it is much simpler than the direct FOC.

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