MA 201 Complex Analysis
Lecture 14: Laurent Series and Singularities
Lecture 14 Singularities
Laurent’s Series
Suppose that 0 ≤ r < R. Let f be an analytic defined on the annulus
A = ann(a, r , R) = {z : r < |z − a| < R}.
Then for each z ∈ A, f (z) has the Laurrent series representation
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − a)n
n=−∞
where the convergence is absolute and uniform in ann(a, r1 , R1 ) if
r < r1 < R1 < R.
The coefficients are given by
Z
1 f (z)
an = dz
2πi γ (z − a)n+1
where γ(t) = a + se it , t ∈ [0, 2π] and for any r < s < R.
−1
X
Moreover, this series is unique and an (z − a)n is called (principal
k=−∞
∞
X
part) and an (z − a)n is called (regular/analytic part).
k=0
Lecture 14 Singularities
Examples of Laurent Series
1
Let f (z) = .
1−z
On the domain |z| < 1
∞
1 X n
f (z) = = z = 1 + z + z2 + . . . + .
1−z n=0
1
On the domain |z| > 1 i.e. |z|
< 1, by the above mentioned fact we have
∞
1 −1 1X 1 1 1
f (z) = = = − = − − 2 − ....
1−z z(1 − z1 ) z n=0 z n z z
Lecture 14 Singularities
Examples of Laurent Series
sin z
Let f (z) = domain |z| > 0
z
∞ ∞
sin z 1 X (−1)n z 2n+1 X (−1)n z 2n z2 z4
f (z) = = = = 1− + +··· .
z z n=0 (2n + 1)! n=0
(2n + 1)! 6 120
ez − 1
Let f (z) = domain |z| > 0
z3
∞
ez − 1 1 X zn 1 1 1 z
f (z) = = = 2 + + + + ··· .
z3 z 3 1 n! z 2z 6 24
1
Let f (z) = e z domain |z| > 0
∞
1 X 1 1 1
f (z) = e z = n
=1+ + 2
+ ··· .
n=0
n!z z 2!z
Lecture 14 Singularities
Examples of Laurent Series
1 1 1
Let f (z) = = −
(z − 1)(z − 2) z −2 z −1
Domain |z| < 1
∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 X zn X X
f (z) = − =− + z n
= (1 − 2−n−1 )z n .
z −2 z −1 n=0
2 n+1
n=0 n=0
1 |z|
Domain 1 < |z| < 2 i.e. < 1 and < 1, so we have
|z| 2
∞ ∞
1 1 X zn X 1
f (z) = − =− − .
z −2 z −1 n=0
2n+1
n=1
z n
1 2
Domain |z| > 2 i.e. < 1 and < 1, in this case we have
|z| |z|
X 2n ∞ ∞
X 2n−1 − 1∞
1 1 X 1
f (z) = − = − = .
z −2 z −1 n=0
z n+1
n=1
z n
n=1
zn
Lecture 14 Singularities
Singularities
Behavior of following functions f at 0:
1
f (z) = 9
z
sin z
f (z) =
z
ez − 1
f (z) =
z
1
f (z) =
sin( z1 )
f (z) = Log z
1
f (z) = e z
In the above we observe that all the functions are not analytic at 0, however in
every neighborhood of 0 there is a point at which f is analytic.
Lecture 14 Singularities
Singularities
Definition: The point z0 is called a singular point or singularity of f
1 if f is not analytic at z0 but
2 every neighborhood of z0 contains at least one point at which
f is analytic.
ez − 1 1
Examples: , 2 , sin z1 , Log z etc. has singularity at z = 0.
z z
Note: z̄, |z|2 , Re z, Im z, zRe z are nowhere analytic. That does not
mean that every point of C is a singularity.
Lecture 14 Singularities
Singularities
A singularities are classified into TWO types:
1 A singular point z0 is said to be an isolated singularity or
isolated singular point of f if f is analytic in B(z0 , r ) \ {z0 }
for some r > 0.
2 A singular point z0 is said to be an non-isolated singularity if
z0 is not an isolated singular point.
sin z 1
, , sin( z1 ) (0 is isolated singular point).
z z2
1
, Log z these functions has non-isolated singularity at 0.
sin(π/z)
Lecture 14 Singularities
Singularities
If f has an isolated singularity at z0 , then f is analytic in B(z0 , r ) \ {z0 } for
some r > 0. In this case f has the following Laurent series expansion:
a−n a−1
f (z) = · · · + ··· + + a0 + a1 (z − a) + a2 (z − z0 )2 + · · · .
(z − z0 )n (z − z0 )
If all a−n = 0 for all n ∈ N, then the point z = z0 is a removal
singularity.
The point z = z0 is called a pole if all but a finite number of a−n ’s are
non-zero. If m is the highest integer such that a−m 6= 0, then z0 is a Pole
of order m.
If a−n 6= 0 for infinitely many n0 s, then the point z = z0 is a essential
singularity.
The term a−1 is called residue of f at z0 .
Lecture 14 Singularities
Removable singularities
The following statements are equivalent:
1 f has a removable singularity at z0 .
2 If all a−n = 0 for all n ∈ N.
3 lim f (z) exists and finite.
z→z0
4 lim (z − z0 )f (z) = 0.
z→z0
5 f is bounded in a deleted neighborhood of z0 .
sin z
The function has removable singularity at 0.
z
Lecture 14 Singularities
Pole
The following statements are equivalent:
1 f has a pole of order m at z0 .
g (z)
2 f (z) = , g is analytic at z0 and g (z0 ) 6= 0.
(z − z0 )m
1
3 has a zero of order m.
f
4 lim |f (z)| = ∞.
z→z0
5 lim (z − z0 )m+1 f (z) = 0
z→z0
6 lim (z − z0 )m f (z) has removal singularity at z0 .
z→z0
ez − 1
Examples: has pole of order 7.
z8
Lecture 14 Singularities
Essential singularity
The following statements are equivalent:
f has a essential singularity at z0 .
The point z0 is neither a pole nor removable singularity.
lim f (z) does not exists.
z→z0
Infinitely many terms in the principal part of Laurent series expansion
around the point z0 .
Limit point of zeros is isolated essential singularity. For example:
1
f (z) = sin
z
Lecture 14 Singularities
Singularities at ∞
Let f be a complex valued function. Define another function g by
1
g (z) = f .
z
Then the nature of singularity of f at z = ∞ is defined to be the the nature of
singularity of g at z = 0.
f (z) = z 3 has a pole of order 3 at ∞.
e z has an essential singularity at ∞.
An entire function f has a removal singularity at ∞ if and only if f is
constant.(Prove This!)
An entire function f has a pole of order m at ∞ if and only if f is a
polynomial of degree m.(Prove This!)
Lecture 14 Singularities
