IMS ENGINEERING COLLEGE, GHAZIABAD

Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities

UNIT-V (COMPLEX VARIABLE– INTEGRATION)
SHORT NOTES
Syllabus:-Complex Variable –Integration: Complex integration, Cauchy- Integral theorem, Cauchy integral formula, Taylor’s
and Laurent’s series, singularities and its classification, zeros of analytic functions, Residues, Cauchy’s Residue theorem and
its application.

CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL THEOREM : If 𝑓(𝑧) is an analytic function of 𝑧 and if 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is continuous at each point within
and on a closed contour 𝐶, then 𝑐 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0.

NOTE: 1. Let𝑓(𝑧) be analytic in a simple connected region 𝐷. Then the integral along every rectifiable curve in 𝐷 joining any
two given points of 𝐷 is the same, 𝑖. 𝑒., it does not depend on the curve joining the two points.
2. Let 𝐷 be a doubly connected region bounded by two simple closed curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 such that 𝐶2 is connected in 𝐶1 and
𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the region between these curves and continuous on 𝐶1 , then, 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧,where integral along
1 2
each curve is taken in anti-clockwise direction.

CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULA: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic function on and inside a closed contour 𝐶 and let ‘a’ be any
1 𝑓(𝑧)
point within 𝐶, then 𝑓 𝑎 = 𝐶
𝑑𝑧,where 𝐶 is traversed in the anti-clockwise direction.
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧−𝑎

DERIVATIVE OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function on and inside the boundary 𝐶 of a
1 𝑓(𝑧)
simply connected region 𝐷 and let ‘a’ be any point within 𝐶, then 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 𝐶 2 𝑑𝑧.
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧−𝑎)
Note: The derivative of an analytic function is analytic.

Theorem: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝐷, then at any point 𝑧 = 𝑎 of 𝐷, 𝑓(𝑧) have derivatives of all order, all of
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
which are again analytic functions in 𝐷, their values are given by 𝑓 𝑛 𝑎 = 𝐶 𝑛 +1 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is any closed contour in
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧−𝑎)
𝐷 surrounding the point 𝑧 = 𝑎.

TAYLOR’S THEOREM: Let 𝑓 𝑧 be analytic at all point within a circle 𝐶0 with centre 𝑧0. Then, for every point 𝑧 within
𝑓 ′′ 𝑧 0 2 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧0 𝑛
𝐶𝑜 , we have 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑧0 + 𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + …+ 𝑧 − 𝑧0 +... ……… (1)
2! 𝑛!
2 𝑓" 𝑧 0 𝑓 𝑛 𝑧0
Note: Putting 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + ℎ in (1), we get 𝑓 𝑧0 + ℎ = 𝑓 𝑧0 + ℎ𝑓 ′ 𝑧0 + ℎ + ⋯+ ℎ𝑛 +⋯
2! 𝑛!

LAURENT’S THEOREM: Let 𝑓 𝑧 be analytic in the ring shaped region 𝐷 bounded by two concentric circles 𝐶1 and 𝐶2
with centre 𝑧0 and radii 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 (𝑟1 > 𝑟2 ) and 𝑧 be any point of𝐷. Then
∞ ∞
𝑛
𝑏𝑛
𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑧0 + .
𝑧 − 𝑧0 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=1
1 𝑓(𝑧) 1 𝑓 𝑧
where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 +1 𝑑𝑧 (𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …) and 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑑𝑧 , 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … .
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶1 (𝑧−𝑧 0 ) 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶2 𝑧−𝑧 0 −𝑛 +1

THE ZEROS OF AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION: The value of 𝑧 for which the analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) becomes zero is said
to be the zero of𝑓(𝑧).
Note: The zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) are isolated.

SINGULARITIES: A point at which a function 𝑓(𝑧) ceases to be analytic is called the singularity (or singular point) of the
function𝑓(𝑧).

ISOLATED AND NON-ISOLATED SINGULARITY : If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) and if there is no other singularity
within a small circle surroundings the point 𝑧 = 𝑎, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is said to be an isolated singularity of the function of 𝑓 𝑧 ,
otherwise it is called non-isolated.

TYPES OF SINGULARITY: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function in a domain 𝐷 except at the point 𝑧 = 𝑎, which is an isolated
singularity. Then, there exists a deleted neighbourhood 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑅 in which 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic.

1
In the annulus 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑅, the Laurent expansion of 𝑓(𝑧)is 𝑓 𝑧 = ∞𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ∞𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛 .
The second term ∞𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛 on the right hand side is called the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧)at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
Now there arise three possibilities:
(i)When all the coefficient 𝑏𝑛 are zero, then 𝑎 is called removable singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).
(ii)If the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧)at 𝑧 = 𝑎 cansists of a finite number of terms, say ‘𝑚’ then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is said to be a pole of order 𝑚
of the function 𝑓 𝑧 .
(iii)If there are infinite number of terms in the principal part of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎 then 𝑎 is called an isolated essential singularity
of 𝑓(𝑧).

Note: 1. When 𝑚 = 1,the pole is said to be simple pole.

2. The poles are isolated.
3. A rational function has no singularities other than poles.
4. The limit point of zeros of a function 𝑓 𝑧 is an isolated essential singularity.
5. The limit point of the pole of a function 𝑓 𝑧 is a non-isolated essential singularity.

TEST OF DETECTING SINGULARITES

(i)Removable singularity: If lim𝑧→𝑎 𝑓(𝑧) exists finitely, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a removable singularity.
(ii)Poles :(A).If lim𝑧→𝑎 𝑓 𝑧 = ∞, then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of 𝑓 𝑧 .
(B). If there is finite number of terms in the principal part of𝑓 𝑧 , then 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole of 𝑓 𝑧 .

(iii)Essential singularity: (A). If lim𝑧→𝑎 𝑓(𝑧) does not exist, then 𝑧 = 𝑎is an essential singularity.

(B). If there are infinite number of term in the principal part of 𝑓 𝑧 , then singularity is isolated essential singularity

RESIDUE AT A POLE: Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function within a circle 𝛾 of radius 𝑟 and centre at 𝑧 = 𝑎 except at the centre
𝑧 = 𝑎, which is a pole of order 𝑚. Then 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within the annulus 0 < 𝑧 − 𝑎 < 𝑟, hence, it can be expanded within
this annulus in a Laurent’s series in the form

1 𝑓(𝑧) 1
𝑓 𝑧 = ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑛 + ∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑎)−𝑛 , where 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑑𝑧 and 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑧−𝑎 𝑛−1
𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝛾 (𝑧−𝑎)𝑛 +1 2𝜋𝑖 𝛾

1
In particular, 𝑏1 = 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧.The coefficient 𝑏1 is called the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = 𝑎.
2𝜋𝑖 𝛾

1
RESIDUE AT INFINITY: Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at 𝑧 = ∞ is defined as − 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, where the integration along 𝐶 is taken
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶
anti-clockwise direction.
COMPUTAITION OF RESIDUE AT A FINITE POLE
(i)Residue at a simple pole: if 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a simple pole of 𝑓(𝑧), Hence, the residue at the simple pole 𝑧 = 𝑎is given by
lim𝑧→𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝑓 𝑧 .
ϕ(z)
(ii) Another form is obtained as follows: If 𝑓 𝑧 = , where 𝜙(𝑎) ≠ 0 and 𝜓 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 𝑎 𝐹 𝑧 , 𝐹(𝑎) ≠ 0.since, 𝑧 = 𝑎 is
𝜓 (𝑧)
′ 𝜙 (𝑎)
a simple pole of 𝑓 𝑧 ,therefore, 𝜓 𝑎 = 0 and 𝜓 (𝑎) ≠ 0.Then, the residue of 𝑓 𝑧 at a simple pole 𝑧 = 𝑎 is given by .
𝜓 ′ (𝑎)
Ф(𝑧)
(iii)Residue at a pole of order 𝒎: Let 𝑧 = 𝑎 be pole of order 𝑚 of 𝑓(𝑧). Then, 𝑓(𝑧) is of the form , where Ф(𝑧) is
(𝑧−𝑎)𝑚
analytic. Hence, the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑎 of order 𝑚 is given by
1 𝑑 𝑚 −1 𝑚
𝑅𝑎 = lim𝑧→𝑎 𝑧−𝑎 𝑓 𝑧 .
𝑚 −1 ! 𝑑𝑧 𝑚 −1
(iv)Residue at a pole 𝒛 = 𝒂 of any finite order ‘𝒎’ (General method) :If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a pole 𝑚 (which may be equal to 1),
1
Residue at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑎 is 𝑏1 =coefficient of in the Laurent’s expansion of 𝑓 𝑎 + 𝑡 , where 𝑡 is sufficiently small.
𝑡
(v)Residue of 𝒇(𝒛) at = ∞ : Residue of 𝑓(𝑧) at (𝑧 = ∞) = lim𝑧→∞ {−𝑧𝑓 𝑧 }, provided the limit exists.
1
Or = −[ Coefficient of in the expansion of 𝑓(𝑧) for values of 𝑧 in the neighborhood of 𝑧 = ∞ ]
𝑧

CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM: Let, 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function, except at a finite number of poles within a closed
contour 𝐶 and continuous on the boundary 𝐶, then 𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖(sum of the residues at the poles within 𝐶) = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑅

EVALUATION OF REAL DEFINITE INTEGRALS BY CONTOUR INTEGRATION: For this we take a suitable
closed contour 𝐶 and find the residues of the function 𝑓(𝑧) at all its poles which lie within 𝐶. Then, using Cauchy’s theorem
of residues, we have 𝐶
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖[Sum of residues of 𝑓(𝑧) at the poles within 𝐶].
2𝜋
INTEGRATION ROUND THE UNIT CIRCLE: We consider the integral of the type 0
𝑓(cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃, where the
integral is a rational function of sin 𝜃andcos 𝜃.

2
 𝑑𝑧 1 1 1 1
If we take 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 so that 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑑𝜃 ⇒ = 𝑑𝜃 and cos 𝜃 = 𝑧+ , sin 𝜃 = 𝑧− .
𝑖𝑧 2 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧
2𝜋 1 1 1 1 1 𝑑𝑧
Then 0
𝑓 cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑓 𝑧+ , 𝑧− = 𝐹(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, [Say], where 𝐶 is the unit circle 𝑧 = 1.
𝑖 𝐶 2 𝑧 2𝑖 𝑧 𝑧 𝐶
Clearly, 𝐹(𝑧) is a rational function of 𝑧. Hence, by residue theorem, we have 𝐶
𝐹(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑠, where 𝑅𝑒𝑠 is the sum
of residues of 𝐹(𝑧) at its poles inside 𝐶.

PROBLEM BASED ON COMPLEX AND CONTOUR INTEGRALS

2
1. Evaluate the integral 𝑐
𝑧 − 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ,where ‘C’ is the upper half of the circle |𝑧– 2| = 3. What is the value of the integral,
if ‘C’ is the lower half the circle? Ans: 66, −66 [AKTU-2013]
3+𝑖 2
2. Evaluate 0 𝑧 𝑑𝑧along the real axis from𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 3 and the along a line parallel to imaginary axis from
26
𝑧 = 3 to𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖. Ans: 12 + 𝑖 [AKTU-2013]
3
3. Integrate 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 from 𝑧 = 0 to 𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖 along the real axis from 𝑧 = 0 to𝑧 = 1 and then along a line
1
parallel to imaginary axis from 𝑧 = 1 to𝑧 = 1 + 2𝑖. Ans: + 2𝑖 [AKTU-2014]
2

PROBLEMS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT

1+𝑖 5 1 5 1
1. Evaluate 0
𝑥 2 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑑𝑧along the paths (i) y=x (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 . Ans: (i) − 𝑖 (ii) + 𝑖 [AKTU-2010 2019]
6 6 6 6
𝑛
2. Prove that 𝑐
(𝑧 − 𝑎) 𝑑𝑧 = 0[n is an interger ≠ −1] where ‘C’ is the circle 𝑧 − 𝑎 = 𝑟. [AKTU-2011]
1+𝑖
3. Find the value of the integral 0
𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 𝑑𝑧, along real axis from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜𝑧 = 1 and then along a line parallel to
3 1
imaginary axis from𝑧 = 1 to𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖. Ans: + 𝑖 [AKTU-2011]
2 6

PROBLEM BASED ON CAUCHY INTEGRAL THEOREM AND CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA

1. State and prove Cauchy- Integral theorem. [AKTU-2016]

𝑧 2 +5𝑧+6 3
2. Evaluate 𝑐
𝑑𝑧 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶: 𝑧 = . Ans: 0 [AKTU-2011,14]
𝑧−2 2
𝑧 3 +𝑧+1
3. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2
𝑑𝑧 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 is the ellipse 4𝑥 2 + 9y 2 = 1 Ans: 0
𝑒𝑧
4. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑧 2 +1
𝑑𝑧, where C is 𝑧 = 1/2 Ans: 0 [AKTU-2017]
𝑖𝑧
5. Verify Cauchy theorem by integrating 𝑒 along the boundary of the triangle with the vertices at the points
1 + 𝑖, −1 + 𝑖 and −1 – 𝑖. [AKTU-2012,13,18]
6. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for the function𝑓 𝑧 = 4𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 − 3 along the positively oriented square with vertices
1,0 , −1,0 , 0,1 and 0, −1 . [AKTU-2011]
7. State and prove Cauchy’s integral formula. [AKTU-2011,12,13,14,16]
8. Let 𝑓(𝑧) be an analytic function within and on the boundary 𝐶 of a simply connected region 𝐷 and let ‘a’ be any point
1 𝑓(𝑧)
within𝐶, then 𝑓 ′ 𝑎 = 𝐶 2 𝑑𝑧. [AKTU-2010]
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧−𝑎)
4−3𝑧
9. Evaluate the following integral using Cauchy integral formula 𝑐 𝑧 𝑧−1 (𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is the circle 𝑧 = 3 2.
Ans- 2𝜋𝑖 [AKTU-2015, 2023]
sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2
10. Evaluate the complex integration 𝑐
𝑑𝑧 where : 𝑧 = 3. Ans:4𝜋𝑖 [AKTU-2010,11]
𝑧−1 (𝑧−2)
exp ⁡
(𝑖𝜋𝑧 )
11. Evaluate 𝑐 2𝑧 2 −5𝑧+2
𝑑𝑧,where ‘C’ is the unit circle with centre at origin and having positive orientation.
2𝜋
Ans: [AKTU-2011,12]
3
𝑒 2𝑧 4𝜋𝑖
12. Evaluate the integral 𝑑𝑧 around the boundary of the circle 𝑧 = 2. Ans: [AKTU-2015,2023]
𝑧+1 5 3𝑒 2
𝑒𝑧
13. Evaluate the integral 𝑐 𝑧−1 𝑧−4
𝑑𝑧 where C is the circle 𝑧 = 2 by using Cauchy integral formula.
−2𝜋𝑖𝑒
Ans: [AKTU-2023]
3
1+𝑧 sin 𝑧 𝜋𝑖 5 3 3
14. Evaluate 𝑐 (2𝑧−3)2
𝑑𝑧, where𝐶: 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 2 counter-clockwise. Ans: cos + sin [AKTU-2014]
2 2 2 2

PROBLEMS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT

1. Verify this theorem by integrating the function 𝑧 3 + 𝑖𝑧 along the boundary of the rectangle with vertices 1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖.
[AKTU-2015]
2. Verify Cauchy’s theorem by integrating 𝑧 3 along the boundary of a square with vertices at 1 + 𝑖, 1 − 𝑖, −1 + 𝑖and−1 − 𝑖.
[AKTU-2014]
3. Verify Cauchy’s theorem for 𝑓 𝑧 = 3𝑧 2 + 𝑖𝑧 − 4 along the perimeter of square with vertices
1 ± 𝑖, −1 ± 𝑖 [AKTU-2011]
3
 𝑧 2 +1 3
4. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑧 2 −1
𝑑𝑧 , where ‘𝐶’ is circle 𝑧 = . Ans:0 [AKTU-2016]
2
𝑧 2 −2𝑧
5. Use Cauchy integral formula to evaluate 𝑐 𝑧 2 +4 𝑧+1 2
𝑑𝑧, where ‘𝐶’ is the circle 𝑧 = 3. Ans:0 [AKTU-2016]
𝑧 2 +1
6. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑧 2 −1
𝑑𝑧 , (i) when ‘𝐶’ is circle 𝑧 − 1 = 1. (ii) when ‘𝐶’ is circle, 𝑧 = 1 2. Ans: (i)2𝜋𝑖 , (ii) 0 [AKTU-2014]
𝑒 2𝑧 8𝜋𝑖
7. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑑𝑧, where ‘C’ is 𝑧 = 3.[AKTU-2017] Ans: 2
𝑧+1 4 3𝑒
1 𝜋
8. Prove that 𝑐 2 2 𝑑𝑧 = , where ‘C’ is circle 𝑧 − 𝑖 = 2. [AKTU-2018]
(𝑧 +4) 16
𝑒𝑧
9. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑑𝑧, where C is (i) 𝑧 = 1/2 (ii) 𝑧 − 1 = 1/2 (iii) 𝑧 =2 [AKTU-2021]
𝑧(1−𝑧)3
Ans: (i) 2𝜋𝑖 (ii) –i𝜋𝑒 (iii) 𝜋𝑖(2 − 𝑒)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑧 20 𝐶𝑜𝑠5𝑖+4 𝑆𝑖𝑛 5𝑖
10. Use Cauchy integral formula to evaluate 𝑐 (𝑧 2 +25)2
𝑑𝑧 where ‘𝐶’ is the circle 𝑧 = 8. Ans: − 𝜋𝑖
500
[AKTU-2018]
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑧
11. Using Cauchy integral formula, evaluate 𝑐 𝑧+3 𝑧+1 2 𝑑𝑧 , where ‘𝐶’ is a rectangle with vertices 3±i,-2±i
Ans: 𝜋𝑖/2(4𝑐𝑜𝑠2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2) [AKTU-2022]

PROBLEM BASED ON TAYLOR’S AND LAURENT’S SERIES

1. State and prove Taylor’s series.
2. State and prove Laurent’s series.
3. Define Laurent’s series [AKTU 2023]
1
4. Expand 2 in the region (i) 𝑧 < 1 (ii) 1 < 𝑧 < 2 (iii) 2 < 𝑧 (iv) 0 < 𝑧 − 1 < 1 [AKTU-2010,15,18]
𝑧 −3𝑧+2
1 ∞ 𝑧 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 1 ∞ 𝑧 𝑛 1 ∞ 1 𝑛
Ans: (𝑖) − 𝑛=0 2 + 𝑛=0 𝑧 (𝑖𝑖) − 𝑛 =0 2 − 𝑛=0 𝑧 ,
2 2 𝑧

1 ∞ 2 𝑛 1 ∞ 1 𝑛 1 1 ∞ 𝑛
𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛=0 𝑧 − 𝑛=0 𝑧 (𝑖𝑣) − − 𝑛=0 𝑧−1
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧
1
5. Find the Taylor’s and Laurent’s series which represent the function 𝑓 𝑧 = , where 𝑧 < 1.
𝑧+1 (𝑧+3)
1 1 𝑧 𝑛
Ans: ∞
𝑛=0 −1 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 − ∞
𝑛=0 −1 𝑛
[AKTU-2016]
2 3 3

7𝑧−2
6. Find series expansion of 𝑓 𝑧 = in the region(i)0 < 𝑧 + 1 < 1(ii)1 < 𝑧 + 1 < 3(iii) 𝑧 + 1 > 3.[AKTU 2022]
𝑧 3 −𝑧 2 −2𝑧
3 2 ∞ 𝑧+1 𝑛 1 1 𝑛 3 2 𝑧+1 𝑛
∞ 𝑛 ∞ ∞
𝐴𝑛𝑠: (𝑖) − − 0 (𝑧 + 1) − ( ) (ii) − −
𝑧+1 3 0 3 𝑧+1 0 𝑧+1 𝑧+1 3 0 3

1 1 𝑛 3 2 3 𝑛
∞ ∞
(iii) 0 − + 0
𝑧+1 𝑧+1 𝑧+1 3 𝑧+1
𝑧
∞ 1 2 𝑛
7. Expand f(z)= 𝑒 𝑧−2 in a Laurent Series about the point z=2. Ans: f(z)= e 𝑛=0 𝑛! 𝑧−2 [AKTU-2022]
𝑧 2 −1
8. Find the Taylor and Laurent series expansion of the following function 𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑧+2 (𝑧+3)
when (i) 𝑧 < 2 (ii) 2 < 𝑧 < 3 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑧 > 3 [AKTU-2021]
∞ 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 2 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
Ans: (i) f(z) =1+3/2 0 (−1) 2
− 8/3 0 (−1) 2
(ii) f(z) =1+3/z 0 (−1) 𝑧
− 8/3 0 (−1) 3
∞ 𝑛 2 𝑛 ∞ 𝑛 3 𝑛
(iii) f(z) =1+3/z 0 (−1) 𝑧
− 8/𝑧 0 (−1) 𝑧

PROBLEMS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT

𝜋
1. Expand the following functions as a Taylor’s series tan−1 𝑧about𝑧 = .
4
−1 𝜋 𝜋 16 64𝜋 𝜋 2
Ans: tan + 𝑧− − 𝑧− + ⋯ [AKTU-2015]
4 4 𝜋 2 +16 𝜋 2 +16 2 4
7𝑧−2
2. Find Laurent’s series expansion of 𝑓 𝑧 = in the region 1 < 𝑧 + 1 < 3.
𝑧 𝑧+1 (𝑧+2)
9 1 1 𝑛 8 𝑛 1 𝑛
Ans: − ∞
𝑛=0 𝑧+1 − ∞
𝑛=0 −1 [AKTU-2017]
𝑧+1 𝑧+1 𝑧+1 𝑧+1

𝑧
3. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = in Laurent’s series valid for region (i)0 < 𝑧 − 2 < 1 and (ii) 𝑧 − 1 > 1.
𝑧−1 (2−𝑧)
∞ 𝑛 𝑛 2 1 2 ∞ 1 𝑛
Ans: (i) 𝑛=0 −1 𝑧−2 − (𝑖𝑖) − 𝑛=0 𝑧−1 [AKTU-2011, 13, 23]
𝑧−2 𝑧−1 𝑧−1
7𝑧 2 +9𝑧−18
4. Expand 𝑓 𝑧 = in Laurent’s series valid for the region (i)0 < 𝑧 < 3 (ii) 𝑧 > 3
𝑧 3 −9𝑧
2 1 ∞ 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛 4 ∞ 𝑧 𝑛 2 1 ∞ 𝑛 3 𝑛 4 ∞ 3 𝑛
Ans: (i) + 𝑛=0 −1 − 𝑛=0 3 (ii) − + 𝑛=0 −1 + 𝑛=0 𝑧 [AKTU-2016]
𝑧 3 3 3 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑧+4
5. If𝑓 𝑧 = , find Laurent’s series expansion in (i)0 < 𝑧 − 1 < 4 and (ii) 𝑧 − 1 > 4.
𝑧+3 (𝑧−1)2
4
 1 ∞ 𝑛 𝑧−1 𝑛 1 5 1 ∞ 𝑛 4 𝑛 1 5
Ans: 𝑖 𝑛=0 −1 − + (𝑖𝑖) 𝑛=0 −1 − + [AKTU-2013]
64 4 16 𝑧−1 4 𝑧−1 2 64(𝑧−1) 𝑧−1 16 𝑧−1 4 𝑧−1 2
𝑧
6. Expend 𝑓 𝑧 = , in Laurent’s series in 1 < 𝑧 < 2.
𝑧 2 −1 (𝑧 2 +4)
1 1 1 𝑛 1 𝑛 1 𝑛 1 𝑧 𝑛 1 𝑛 𝑧 𝑛
Ans: ∞
𝑛=0 𝑧 + ∞
𝑛=0 −1 + ∞
𝑛=0 2𝑖 − ∞
𝑛 =0 −1 [AKTU-2011,12]
10 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧 2𝑖 2𝑖 2𝑖

PROBLEM BASED ON SINGULARITIES

𝑧−sin 𝑧
1. Define singular points of an analytic function. Find nature and location of the singularity of 𝑓 𝑧 = 2 .
𝑧
Ans: 𝑧 = 0 is a removable singularity.
cot 𝜋𝑧
2. Discuss singularity of 2 at 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = ∞.
(𝑧−𝑎)
[AKTU-2008,21]
Ans: 𝑧 = 𝑎 is the double pole and 𝑧 = ∞ is a non-isolated essential singularity.

PROBLEMS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT

1 𝜋
1. Discuss singularity of at 𝑧 = . Ans: Simple pole
sin 𝑧−cos 𝑧 4
1
2. Discuss the nature of singularity of 𝑓 𝑧 = sin at 𝑧 = 0. Ans: Isolated essential singularity
𝑧
1
𝑒𝑧
3. Classify the singularities of f(z)= Ans: Isolated essential singularity at z = 0. [AKTU-2022]
𝑧2

PROBLEM BASED ON RESIDUE AND CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑧 1
1. Find residue of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑧+5) at 𝑧 = 0. Ans:
5
[AKTU-2018]
𝑧2
2. Find residue of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 2 +3𝑧+2 at the pole 𝑧 = −1. Ans:1 [AKTU-2013]
1−2𝑧
3. Find the poles (with its order) and residue at each pole of the following function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧 𝑧−1 𝑧−2 2
. [AKTU-2007]
1 5
Ans: Poles are 0,1,2 of order 1,1,2 and respective residues are − , −1,
4 4
𝑧2
4. Find residue of 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧−1 at 𝑧 = ∞. Ans: −1
𝑧2
5. Determine the poles of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = 𝑧−1 2 (𝑧+2)
and the residue at each pole. Hence evaluate
𝑧2
𝑐 𝑧−1 2 (𝑧+2)
𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 3 [AKTU-2014]
5 4
Ans: Poles are 1 (order 2) , −2 (simple pole) and respective residues are , ; 2𝜋𝑖
9 9
12𝑧−7
6. Evaluate 𝑐 𝑧−1 2 (2𝑧+3)
𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶: 𝑧 = 2. Ans: 0 [AKTU-2011]
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
7. Using contour integration, evaluate 0 𝑎+𝑏 cos 𝜃
, where 𝑎 > 𝑏 .Hence or otherwise evaluate 0
.
2−cos 𝜃
2𝜋
Ans: , 2𝜋
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2
𝜋 𝑎 𝜋
8. Using complex integration method, evaluate 0 𝑎 2 +sin 2 𝜃
𝑑𝜃. Ans: [AKTU-2011, 2022]
1+𝑎 2

2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
9. Evaluate by contour integration 0 𝑎+𝑏 sin 𝜃
,where𝑎 > 𝑏 .Hence or otherwise evaluate 0 1−2𝑎 sin 𝜃+𝑎 2
,0 < 𝑎 < 1.
2𝜋 2𝜋
Ans: , [AKTU-2017]
𝑎 2 −𝑏 2 1−𝑎 2

PROBLEMS FOR SELF ASSESSMENT

𝑧2 𝑖𝑎
1. Find residue of 𝑓 𝑧 = at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎. Ans:
𝑧 2 +𝑎 2 2
1 −𝑖
2. Find residue of 𝑓 𝑧 = at the pole 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑎. Ans:
𝑧 2 +𝑎 2 2 4𝑎 3
𝑧2
3. Find the residue of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = at pole 𝑧 =2 Ans: 0 . [AKTU-2018, 2023]
(𝑧−1) 𝑧−2 2
𝑧
4. Determine the poles and residues at each pole of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = . Also evaluate 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where C is the
𝑧 2 −3𝑧+2 𝑐
1
cirle 𝑧 − 2 = . Ans: Poles are 1,2 and respective residues are −1,2; 4𝜋𝑖 [AKTU-2011]
2

5
 𝑧3
5. Find the residue of the function 𝑓 𝑧 = at its poles and hence evaluate 𝑓 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where C is the
𝑧−1 4 𝑧−2 (𝑧−3) 𝑐
5 101 27 27𝜋𝑖
cirle 𝑧 = . Ans: Poles are 1,2,3 and respective residues are , −8, ; − [AKTU-2018]
2 16 16 8
1 𝑒 𝑧𝑡 𝑡−1 𝑒 −𝑡
6. Using Residue theorem, evaluate 𝑑𝑧,where C is the circle 𝑧 = 3. Ans: + cos 𝑡 [AKTU-2009]
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 +2𝑧+2) 2 2
7. Evaluate the following integrals by using contour integration
2𝜋 𝑑𝜃 2𝜋
(i) 0 2+cos 𝜃
. Ans: [AKTU-2015]
3
𝜋 𝑎𝑑𝜃 𝜋
(ii) 0 . Ans: [AKTU-2011]
1+2𝑎 2 −cos 2𝜃 2 1+𝑎 2
2𝜋 1 2𝜋
(iii) 0 𝑑𝜃. Ans: [AKTU-2011]
5+4 sin 𝜃 3
2𝜋 cos 2𝜃 𝜋
(iv) 0 𝑑𝜃. Ans: [AKTU-2010,12,18]
5+4 cos 𝜃 6
2𝜋 1
(v) 0 𝑑𝜃. Ans: 𝜋 [AKTU-2013,14]
3−2 cos 𝜃 +sin 𝜃

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