Chapter- 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is Biomedical instrumentation?

1.2 Development of Biomedical instrumentation

1.3 Biometrics

1.4 Introduction to the Man-Instrument System

1.5 Physiological anatomy of the body

 1.1 What is Biomedical Instrumentation?

It is coined from three terms

 Bio- meaning Life

 Medical- meaning an examination to assess a person’s

state of physical health

 Instrumentation- meaning use of measuring instruments to

monitor and control a process variable.

 Hence, Biomedical Instrumentation is to mean the field of

study of instruments that are useful in measuring, recording
and transmitting data to/from the living human body.
 Why Is Instrumentation and Process Control
Essential?

 In general Instrumentation and process control are at

the core of all industrial and manufacturing activities .

 Within a production facility, every process must be

carefully monitored and controlled to proceed in a
predetermined fashion that is both optimized and safe.

 Likewise, every physiological or living human body

process should be carefully monitored and controlled by
a Biomedical instrument.
 Biomedical instrument vs. Biomedical

equipment

 Biomedical Equipment is the set of instruments used

in the field of medicine, biology and pharmacology .

 The design of biomedical equipment is directly

related to Biomedical Instrumentation, in which

instruments are designed to obtain information,

apply treatments or perform chemical and biological

processes.
Some common examples of Biomedical
equipment are listed below (Imaging
devices)

 X-rays

 Electrocardiography(

ECG,EEG)

 MRI

 Ultrasound
 Medical intervention

is done to the patient by

the physician using the

Biomedical Instrument.

 In general, Biomedical instruments are fundamental

to successful medical practice.
Medical instruments are devices intended to diagnose,
treat, or monitor the patient under medical supervision .
 1.1 Development of Biomedical instrumentation
 The field of medical instrumentation is by no means
new.
 Many instruments were developed as early as the
nineteenth century—for example, the
electrocardiograph, first used by Einthoven at the end
of 19th century.
 Progress was rather slow until after World War II,
when a surplus of electronic equipment, such as
amplifiers and recorders, became available.
 At that time many technicians and engineers, both
within industry and on their own, started to experiment
with and modify existing equipment for medical use.
 This process occurred primarily during the 1950s
and the results were often disappointing, for the
experimenters soon learned that
physiological parameters are not measured in the same
way as physical parameters.
 They also encountered a severe communication
problem with the medical profession.
 During the next decade many instrument
manufacturers entered the
field of medical instrumentation, but development
costs were high and the medical profession and
hospital staffs were suspicious of
 the new equipment and often uncooperative.

 It was during this period that some progressive companies

decided that

rather than modify existing hardware, they would design

instrumentation specifically for medical use.

 Although it is true that many of the same components were used,

the philosophy was changed; equipment analysis and design were
applied directly to medical problems.

 Also, in the 1960s, an awareness of the need for engineers and

technicians to work with the medical profession developed.
 All the major engineering technical societies
recognized this need by forming ‘’Engineering in
Medicine and Biology" subgroups, and new
societies were organized.
 Along with the medical research programs at the
universities, a need developed for courses and
curricula in biomedical engineering, and today
almost every major university or college has
some type of biomedical engineering program.
 Biomedical instrumentation covers all the
 makers, equipment near the patient such as fingertip
measurement of blood oxygen saturation and equipment
used remotely to analyze samples from the patient such as
analysis of blood samples.

 Roughly speaking, BMI covers all the aspects of

developing, operating, maintaining and repairing medical
equipment.

 Biomedical instrumentation can involve electrical, mechanical,

chemical, and optical techniques as well as many other
techniques and is thus very multidisciplinary.
 1.2. Biometrics

 The branch of science that includes the measurement

of physiological and behavioral variables and

parameters is known as biometrics.

 Biomedical instrumentation provides the tools by
which these measurements can be achieved.
 In later chapters each of the major forms of biomedical
instrumentation is covered in detail, along with the
physiological or behavioral basis for the measurements
involved.
 Bioinstrumentation implies measurement of biological
variables, and this field of measurement is often
referred to as biometrics, although the latter term is
also used for mathematical and statistical methods
applied to biology.
 Therefore there are two types of Biometrics, the
physiological and behavioral.
 Some examples of the physiological biometrics are
fingure print, iris scanning, DNA etc.
 Some examples of behavioral biometrics are signature
 1.3. Introduction to the Man-Instrument Sy
 Biomedical instrumentation is a set of
instruments and equipment utilized in the
measurement of one or more characteristics or
phenomena, and the presentation of information
obtained from those measurements in a form
that can be read and interpreted by man.
 This is the definition of instrument from the
complete man-instrument system which must
also include the human or: subject on whom the
measurement are being made.
Due to special problems faced in getting data from

living organism, specially, human beings, and

because of the large amount of interaction between

the instrumentation system and the subject being

measured, it is necessary that the person on whom

the measurements are being made be considered as

an integral part of the instrumentation system.

Block diagram of the Man-Instrument system
 Physiological events of human body give signals to suitable
transducer.
 Electrical output of transducer is passed though signal
conditioning. Subsequently, the output can be recorded or
displayed.
 The stimulus given to the subject may be in the form of visual,
auditory or an electrical impulse.
 Few examples of the biomedical instruments are
1.Measuring Instruments (example, Blood pressure meter)
2. Recording Instruments(example, Radio graph ( x-ray) )
3.Monitoring Instruments(Example, Bed-side monitor)
4. Analyzing Instruments(Example, Spectrometer )
5.Controlling Instruments(Example , Dialysis instrument)
6. Data Logging Instruments (Example, Computer)
 In order to make sense out of the data obtained from the
humans organism, the internal characteristic of the human
organism must be considered in the design and application of
any biomedical instruments.
 The overall system, which includes both the organism and the
instrumentation required for measurement of the human is
called
 the Man-Instrument System(MIS).

 Initially it was almost impossible to measure and understand the internal

relationship of the human body.

 The function of medical instrumentation is to aid the medical clinician and

researcher in devising ways of obtaining reliable and meaningful

measurements from a living human being.

 There are problems associated with such measurements. The process of

measuring must not in any way endanger the life of the person on whom the

measurements are being made.

 Example, Occasionally, the endoscope causes some damage to the gut .

 This may cause bleeding, infection and (rarely) a

hole (perforation).

 It should not cause undue pain, discomfort. This

means that many of the measurement techniques

normally employed in the instrumentation of

nonliving systems cannot be applied in the

instrumentation of humans.
  Man instrumentation system involves the
measurement of outputs from an unknown
system as they are affected by various
combinations of inputs. anatomy of human being
1.4 Physiological
Introduction

• A cell is the smallest living thing in the human

organism, and all living structures in the human

body are made of cells.

• There are hundreds of different types of cells in

and size (e.g. small granule cells of the

cerebellum in the brain (4 micrometers), up

to the huge oocytes (eggs) produced in the

female reproductive organs (100

micrometers) and function.

• However, all cells have three main parts,

the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm and
the nucleus.
Cell is the building block of all organ systems and
The functional systems of the body can be
further subdivided into smaller units.
The process of subdivision can continue up
to cellular or molecular level.
 A brief of the engineering oriented
description of the major systems like
Biochemical System, Cardiovascular
system, Respiratory system and Nervous
system are discussed below.
a. Biochemical System

 Biochemical signals contain information

about changes in concentration of various

chemical agents in the body.

 The concentration of various ions, such as

calcium and potassium, in cells can be

measured and recorded. Changes in the

partial pressures of oxygen (PO2) and carbon

 All of these constitute biochemical signals. These

biochemical signals can be used for a variety of

purposes, such as determining levels of glucose,

lactate, and metabolites and providing

information about the function of

various physiological systems.

b. Cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system can be explained as a

 The tubing changes its diameter to control

pressure.

 It works as a synchronized pump in which the

first stage of each pump (atrium) collects the

blood from the system and pumps it into the

second stage (ventricle).

 The action of second stage is so timed that the

 Then the right side of the heart (atrium) is to

collects the fluid from the main hydraulic system

and pump it through lungs for oxygenation.

 The other pump (left side of the heart)

received the oxygenated blood and pumps it

into the main hydraulic system to all the

organs.
 c. Respiratory system

 Respiratory system is a pneumatic system

where the oxygen is inspired in the elastic

bags (lungs).

 The lungs are connected to outside world by

nasal cavities,

pharynx, larynx, trachea.

 The lungs oxygenate the blood and take out

d. Nervous system:

 The nervous system or brain just works like a

computer.

 Its center is a self adapting central information

system with memory, computational power,

decision making capabilities any many input

output channel.

 The information is generally coded in the system

Diagram of the Human Nervous System
 Chapter -2
INTRODUCTION TO BIOMEDICAL SIGNALS
2.1 Introduction

2.2 Resting and Action Potentials

2.3 Bioelectric signals

2.4 Bio magnetic signals

2.5 Biochemical signals

2.6 Biomechanical signals

2.7 Bio acoustic signals

2.8 Bio optical signals

 2.1 Introduction

 Biomedical signals means the bio-signals

which are generated in biological systems

only.

 Biomedical signals are observations of

physiological activities of organisms,

ranging from gene and protein sequences,

•Biomedical signals are electrical or magnetic signals

generated by some biological activity in the

human body.

•Human body is composed of living tissues that can

be considered as a power station.

•Action of living tissues in terms of bioelectric

potentials generate multiple electric signals

2.2 Resting and Action Potentials
Cell in the resting state
 The cell is said to be
In a polarized state
Cell is in the excited
r stimulated state
 Example when we
walk, run , lift our
hand ,talk etc..
 The cell is said to be in
a depolarized state.
2.3 Bioelectric Signals
 Nerve and Muscle cells generate bioelectric signals that are the
result of electrochemical changes within and between cells .
 If a nerve or muscle cell is stimulated by a stimulus that is
strong enough to reach a necessary threshold, the cell will
generate an action potential.
 The action potential, which represents a brief flow of ions
across the cell membrane, can be measured with intracellular
or extracellular electrodes.
 Action potentials generated by an excited cell can be
transmitted from one cell to adjacent cells via its axon.
 When many cells become activated, an electric field is
 These changes in extracellular potential can be measured on the
surface of the tissue or organism by using surface electrodes.
 The electrocardiogram (ECG), electrogastrogram (EGG),
electroencephalogram (EEG), and electromyogram (EMG) are
all examples of this phenomenon .
2.4 Bio magnetic Signals
 Bio magnetism is the measurement of the magnetic signals that
are associated with specific physiological activity and that are
typically linked to an accompanying electric field from a specific
tissue or organ., MCG).
 Different organs, including the heart, brain, and lungs, also
generate weak magnetic fields that can be measured with
magnetic sensors.
 Typically, the strength of the magnetic field is much weaker than
the corresponding physiological bioelectric signals.
 With the aid of very precise magnetic sensors or SCQID (superconducting
quantum interference device) magnetometers, it is possible to directly monitor
magnetic activity from the brain (magneto encephalography, MEG),
peripheral nerves (magneto neurography, MNG), gastrointestinal tract
(magneto gastrography, MGG), and the heart (magneto cardiography ,MCG)

2.5 Biochemical Signals

 Biochemical signals contain information about changes in concentration
of various chemical agents in the body.
 The concentration of various ions, such as calcium and potassium, in cells
can be measured and recorded.
 Changes in the partial pressures of oxygen (PO2) and carbon dioxide
(PCO2) in the in
 the respiratory system or blood are often measured to evaluate
normal levels of blood oxygen concentration. All of these constitute
biochemical signals. These biochemical signals can be used for a variety
of purposes, such as determining levels of glucose, lactate, and
metabolites and providing information about the function of
various physiological systems.
2.6 Biomechanical Signals
 Mechanical functions of biological systems, which include motion,
displacement, tension, force, pressure, and flow, also produce measurable
biological signals.
 Blood pressure, for example, is a measurement of the force that blood exerts
against the walls of blood vessels.
 Changes in blood pressure can be recorded as a waveform as shown in the
figure below.
 The upstrokes in the waveform represent the contraction of
the ventricles of heart as blood is ejected from the heart into
 to the systolic pressure, the maximum blood pressure.
 The downward portion of the waveform depicts ventricular
relaxation as the blood pressure drops to the minimum

value, better known as the diastolic pressure.

2.7 Bio acoustic Signals

• Bio acoustic signals are a special subset of biomechanical
signals that involve vibrations (motion).
• Many biological events produce acoustic noise.
• For instance, the flow of blood through the valves in the
heart has a distinctive sound.
• Measurements of the bio acoustic signal of a heart valve can
be used to determine
 whether it is operating properly.
• The respiratory system, joints, and muscles also generate bio
acoustic signals that propagate through the biological medium
and can often be measured at the skin surface by using
acoustic transducers such as microphones and accelerometers.
2.8 Bio optical Signals
 Bio optical signals are generated by the optical or light induced
attributes of biological systems.
 Bio optical signals can occur naturally, or in some cases, the signals may
be introduced to measure a biological parameter with an external light
medium.
 For example, information about the health of a fetus may be obtained
by measuring the fluorescence characteristics of the amniotic fluid.
 Estimates of cardiac output can be made by using

the dye dilution method that involves monitoring the

concentration of a dye as it recirculates through the

bloodstream.

 Finally, red and infrared light are used in various

applications, such as to obtain precise measurements of

blood oxygen levels by measuring the light absorption

across the skin or a particular tissue.

 Chapter -3
Basic Transducer
principles
3.1. The Transducer and Transduction
Principles
3.2. Active Transducers
3.3. Passive Transducers
3.4. Transducers for Biomedical Applications
 3.1. The Transducer and Transduction
Principles
 The device that performs the conversion of one form of variable
into another is called a transducer.
 The conversion of all other forms of physiological variables into
electrical signals is vital in biomedical instrumentations.
 In this way a transducer is a component which has a nonelectrical
variable as its input and an electrical signal as its output.
 To conduct its function properly, one (or more) parameters of the
electrical output signal (say, its voltage, current, frequency, or pulse
width) must be a non ambiguous function of the nonelectrical
variable at the input. The process of conversion is called
 Two quite different principles are involved in the
process of converting nonelectrical variables into
electrical signals.
 One of these is energy conversion; transducers based
on this principle are called active transducers.
 The other principle involves control of an excitation
voltage or modulation of a carrier signal.
 Transducers based on this principle are called passive
transducers.
 The two transducer types will nevertheless be
described separately in the following sections.
In general

 The transducer which generate the output in the form of

voltage or current, without any external energy source is
known as active transducer.
 It works on the principle of conversion of energy from
one form to another.
 The energy requires for generating the output signals
are obtained from the physical quantity which is to be
measured.
Where as
 The passive transducer means the transducer whose
internal parameters like capacitance, resistance &
inductance changes because of the input signal.
 Passive transducer, the output is obtained by changing
the physical properties (resistance, inductance, and
capacitance) of the material.
 In other words, the passive transducer takes power
from the external energy source for transduction.
 The word transduction means conversion of energy
from one form to another.
 3.2. Active Transducers

 Non-electrical parameters such as temperature, heart sound, blood

pressure are measured from the human body with electronic

equipment.

 Active Transducers are the devices that convert biological

parameters to electrical signals.

 The process of conversion is Transduction.

 Active Transducers: It converts one form of energy into another

form without using an external power source.

 Types of Active Transducers
1.Magnetic Induction Type
2.Piezoelectric Type
3.Photovoltaic Type
4.Thermoelectric Type

1.Magnetic Induction Type

 When an electrical conductor moves in a magnetic field, it changes the
magnetic flux through the conductor. This produces a voltage, which is
proportional to the rate of change of flux. Induced EMF is given as
e = -B x l x v
Where B is the magnetic induction, l is the length of the
conductor, and V is the velocity of the moving conductor
 The negative sign indicates that the direction of induced
EMF and the direction of induced current are in the opposite
direction.
 The inverse magnetic effect is also true.
 When current passes through the electrical conductor placed
in the magnetic field mechanical force F acts on the
conductor.

Applications of Magnetic Induction Type Transducers

o Electromagnetic flow meter(Blood flow meter)
o Heart sound Microphones
(cardio microphone sensor)
o Indicating instruments
 2.Piezoelectric Type
 When compression or tension is applied to the crystal, charge
separation occurs in the crystals.
 This produces electrical voltage resulting in Piezoelectric Effect.
 Piezoelectric transducers convert displacement or pressure into an
electrical value.
 Barium Titanium, Rochelle salt, Lithium Niobate are few
piezoelectric transducer materials.
.Applications of
Piezoelectric Transducers
•Piezoelectric Transducer
acts as a pulse sensor to
measure the pulse rate of a
human.
The piezoelectric effect can be seen from two perspe
a. Conversion of pressure or displacement to electri
potential and
b. Conversion of Electric potential to sound wave.
Example of the application of the second type is
An ultrasonic dental scalar is a valuable tool that
harnesses the power of ultrasonic vibrations to aid in
removing plaque and tartar from teeth.

Ultrasonic surgical tools use ultrasound waves directed at

the injured area to effectively reshape and remove damaged

tissue and bone.

An ultrasound scan uses high-frequency sound waves to

make an image of a person's internal body structures.

 3.Photovoltaic Type
 When light or any other radiation of wavelength falls on the
metal or semiconductor surface, it ejects electrons.
 This is the Photoelectric Effect. Photo emissive,
Photoconductive and photovoltaic are the types of
Photoelectric Transducers. Among these, Photovoltaic is an
active transducer which generates an electrical voltage in
proportion to the radiation incident on it.
Applications of Photovoltaic Transducers
•In Photoelectric Plethysmography silicon photovoltaic cells
acts as pulse sensor.
•To measure sodium and potassium ion concentration in a
sample using light absorption techniques.
4.Thermoelectric Transducers
• These transducers work based on the Seebeck Effect
• Seebeck effect states that, when two junctions of the
thermocouple are at two different temperatures, it
generates a potential voltage.
• The generated voltage is proportional to the difference in
temperature between two junctions of the thermocouple.

Applications of Thermoelectric Transducers

•To measure physiological temperature in remote sensing
circuits and biotelemetry circuits.
 Passive Transducers
i. Resistive Transducers
 The strain gauge, photo resistor, photodiode, phototransistor, and
thermistor come under resistive type passive transducers.
 They have a common working principle, which states that the
measured parameter results in a small change in the resistance of a
transducer. Usually, a Wheatstone bridge measures the resistance
change.
Applications of Resistive Transducers
•Finger-mounted strain gauge measures small changes in blood
volume flowing via the finger.
•To measure intra arterial and intravenous pressure in the body.
•LDR or photo resistor measures the pulsatile blood volume
changes.
Example :Blood Pressure measuremen
with a strain gauge
ii. Capacitive Transducers

 A capacitor has two conducting surfaces. A dielectric medium

acts separating gap between two surfaces.

 Capacitive transducers measure the change in displacement due

to change in the area of conducting plates, the thickness of the
dielectric medium and distance between the plates.

Applications of Capacitive Transducers

 Differential capacitive transducers measure blood pressure.

III. Inductive Type Transducer
Inductive Transducers
 Inductive transducer works based on the change in
reluctance and number of turns in the coil.
 A Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT) is
a type of inductive transducer that acts as a
physiological pressure sensor.
Application of Inductive Transducers
 To measure tremor in patients suffering from
Parkinson’s disease.

Example ,Measurement of Blood Pressure using

Inductive Transducers
In general,
3.4. Transducers for Biomedical

Applications