CHAPTER ONE
CONCEPT OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
Research is mostly used terminology in different academic and business institutions. Research
as consciously and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things. Where
there is a problem there is always a research. It is an essential tool for understanding the events
and structure of the social world. Research can mean different things to different people. People
have defined research differently according to their perception.
1.1 MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research as
a scientific and systematic search for related information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from
the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct
of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes
us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. Research is an academic
activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as “the
exploitation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or
verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of
an art.” Woody on the other hand defined research, as an activity comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and
evaluating data; making deduction and reaching at conclusion to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis.
An author called Klopsteg gives the most comprehensive definition of research. According to
him “ Research is original and creative intellectual activity, carried out in the laboratory, the
library or in field which endeavors to discover new facts and to apprise and interpret them
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properly in the light of previous knowledge. With constantly increasing understanding, it revises
previously accepted conclusion, theories and laws, and makes new application of its findings
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research.
1.1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To describe accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
1.1.3 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
2. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
3. Desire to be of service to society;
4. Desire to get respectability.
5. Directive of government
6. Employment condition
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
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Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
1.1.4 Research Process
Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate to
present a brief overview of the research process. Research process consists of series of actions or
steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps
A brief description of the research process steps will be helpful.
1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the
very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e. he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially
the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the
problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a
working formulation of the problem can be set up. Essentially two steps are involved in
formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing
the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. The researcher may review two types of literature the conceptual
literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature consisting of studies
made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic outcome of this review will be the
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context.
2. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such the
manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide
the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types
of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important role. Hypothesis should
be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role
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of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on
the right track.
3. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the
conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a
design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other
words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be achieved depends
mainly on the research purpose. There are several research designs, such as, experimental and
non-experimental hypothesis testing. The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) The means of obtaining the information;
(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv)The time available for research; and
(v) The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
4. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry/investigation. It can be presumed that in such an
inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an
inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no
way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through resurvey or use of sample
checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only
this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood
testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample.
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are
actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
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5. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are
several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help
of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can
be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what
is currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or
attitudes of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the information
provided by this method is also very limited. As such this method is not suitable in inquiries
where large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is
usually carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer
to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with
each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with
a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various
economic and business surveys.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators
on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators
so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators
may ensure sincere work.
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6. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher should
classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is usually
done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols that may be
tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data,
especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also
make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be
subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusion(s).
7. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may
be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger
off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
8. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the
following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
preface. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs
and charts, if any, given in the report.
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The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study
along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings. If the
findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results
of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
(e) Recommendation forwarded by the researcher
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
1.1.5 The qualities of a good research:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
1.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH
1.2.1 Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state
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of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the
term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive
studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of
research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative
and co relational methods.
Goals of Descriptive Research
To provide an accurate profile of a group
To describe a process, mechanism or relationship
To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
To find information to stimulate new explanations
To present basic background information on a context
To create a set of categories or classify types
To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Goals of analytical research
To determine the accuracy of a principle of a theory
To find out which competing explanation is better
To advance knowledge about an underling process
To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more complete
To extend a theory or principle in to new areas or issues
To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction
1.2.2 Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory. Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is
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aimed at investigating or search for new principles and laws. In general, fundamental research is
concerned with the theoretical aspect of science.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior carried on with a
view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also examples of fundamental research,
but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business
problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political
trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether
certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
1.2.3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in
investigating the reasons for human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we
quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for
the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion
tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think
about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying
motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the various factors which
motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like or dislike a
particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.
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1.2.4 Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experiment or observation alone, often without
due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which
are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at
facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the
production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself
with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks
will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired
information
1.2.5 Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other
similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-
period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research
can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the
environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows
case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies
usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and
very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be
formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than
their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons
and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented
and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
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Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is
an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.
1.3. THE SYSTEMATIC PROCESS OF RESEARCH
1.3.1 The Research Process
The research process consists of a series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps. The various steps involved in a research
process are neither mutually exclusive nor are they separate and distinct. They do not necessarily
follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at
each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps.
1.3.1.1 Steps in Research Process. The following order concerning the various steps provides a
useful procedural guideline regarding the research process which can be classified into three
phases.
A. The conceptual phase –
1. Formulation of the research problem
2. Literature review
3. Developing the hypothesis
B. The empirical phase –
1. Preparing the research design
2. Determining the sample design
3. Collecting the data
C. The analytical phase-
1. Analysis of data
2. Hypothesis testing
3. Generalizations and interpretation
4. Preparation of the report, presentation of the results, that is, formal write-up of the
conclusions reached.
The conceptual phase of the research process isolates articulates a problem of scientific
relevance. The empirical phase consolidates the related ideas and theories leading to facts
and the analytical phase compares these facts with the initial understanding of a
phenomenon.
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