Role and Status in Sociology

The concept of Role and Status is crucial for understanding the social structure and the functioning of
society. Here’s a detailed exploration of the meanings, definitions, and interrelationships between these
concepts:

1. The Concept of Role (Social Role)

 Meaning of Role:
o Young and Mack: "A role is the function of a status."
o Robert Bierstedt: A role is the dynamic or behavioral aspect of status. It represents what an
individual does in the status they occupy.
o Duncan Mitchell: "A social role is the expected behavior associated with a social position."
o Kingsley Davis: Role refers to "the manner in which a person actually carries out the
requirements of their position."
 Nature of Role:
o Obligatory Role-Playing: Every member of a social group or society must play social roles.
The number of roles depends on the statuses an individual assumes.
o Shared Roles: Some roles are shared by many people, like citizens, teachers, etc.
o Exclusive Roles: Some roles are specific to few individuals, such as the role of a governor.
o Voluntary Roles: Some roles are voluntarily assumed, such as being a member of a club.
o Involuntary Roles: Some roles are ascribed and not chosen, such as gender or caste.

2. Social Status: Meaning, Definition, and Nature

 Meaning of Social Status:

o Definition: Social status refers to a position or rank within a social structure. It can be either
ascribed or achieved.
 Nature of Social Status:
o Ascribed Status: This is a status that individuals are born into or have no control over, such
as race, gender, or caste.
o Achieved Status: This status is acquired based on merit, actions, and efforts, such as a
professional position or educational attainment.

3. Organization of Statuses

 Status and Office: Statuses are organized within social institutions and roles are attached to these
statuses. An office is a formal status within an organization that comes with specific duties and
privileges.
 Prestige, Esteem, and Rank: These elements relate to the perceived social value of a status.
Prestige refers to the respect a status commands, esteem is the personal admiration, and rank denotes
the relative position in a hierarchy.
 Power and Position: Power is the ability to influence others within the social structure, while
position refers to one's location within that structure.

4. Ascribed and Achieved Statuses

 Ascribed Status and its Bases:

o Sex, Age, Kinship, and Other Bases: Ascribed statuses are assigned at birth and are based
on inherent characteristics such as gender, age, or family background.
 Achieved Status:
o Interrelationship of Ascribed and Achieved Statuses: These statuses often intersect. For
instance, an individual's ascribed status (like caste) may impact their ability to achieve certain
roles or statuses (like occupation).
5. Interrelationship Between Roles and Statuses

 Role and Status Dynamics:

o A status is a position in society, and a role is the behavior expected from someone occupying
a specific status. A role is the active expression of a status.
o Statuses are often used interchangeably with roles, but strictly speaking, a status is a static
position, while a role is dynamic behavior.
o Example: The status of an 'advocate' defines the role of legal representation in a court.
 Role is a Relational Term:
o An individual's role is defined in relation to others. For example, the role of a doctor is
related to the patient’s role.
o Roles are relevant at the individual level during interactions; organizations or institutions do
not play roles, individuals do.
 Role and Status in Different Disciplines:
o Sociology often examines statuses as positions within a social structure, while social
psychology focuses on roles as behaviors in interaction.
 Dynamic Nature of Status and Role:
o Both status and role are dynamic and can change. As norms and expectations evolve, the
roles associated with statuses also adapt.
 Role Behavior:
o Role behavior refers to how an individual actually fulfills their role, which may vary from the
expected role based on personal style, effort, and other roles they occupy.
o Factors influencing role behavior include individual effort, sense of obligation, and multiple
statuses.
 Role-Taking:
o Role-taking involves assuming the perspective of another to understand their expectations
and adjust one's own behavior accordingly.
o This concept is key in socialization and the development of social roles, as outlined by G.H.
Mead.
 Role Conflict:
o Intra-role Conflict: Occurs when there is a conflict within the same role, such as differing
expectations from multiple stakeholders.
o Inter-role Conflict: Arises when different roles of an individual conflict, such as being a
doctor and a parent simultaneously.
o Role conflicts are more common in complex, heterogeneous societies.

Conclusion

Roles and statuses are fundamental to social organization. They provide order and predictability by
defining expected behaviors and assigning responsibilities within a social structure. Understanding these
concepts helps in analyzing how social interactions and institutions function to maintain societal order.

Social Status

Meaning of Social Status

Social status refers to a person's position or rank within the social structure of a society. This position
determines how individuals interact and relate to each other within the social framework. In any social
interaction, individuals do not respond uniformly because each person brings a unique identity and role into
the social situation. For example, a husband expects a particular kind of response from his wife that other
men cannot expect. Similarly, patients expect doctors to treat them, and students expect teachers to clarify
their doubts.
Definitions of Social Status

1. Duncan Mitchell: Social status refers to "the position occupied by a person, family, or kinship group
in a social system relative to others. This determines rights, duties, and other behaviors, including the
nature and extent of relationships with persons of other statuses."
2. Ralph Linton: "Status is the place in a particular system that a certain individual occupies at a
particular time."
3. Robert Bierstedt: "A status is simply a position in society or in a group... the status is the position
afforded by group affiliation, group membership, or group organization. It is 'set' in the structure of
the group or of society before a given individual comes along to occupy it."
4. Morris Ginsberg: "A status is a position in a social group or grouping, a relation to other positions
held by other individuals in the group or grouping."

Nature of Status

1. External Symbols to Identify Status: As Kingsley Davis points out, a person's identity in a social
situation reveals their status. Certain external symbols such as style of dress, badges, or uniforms
help in identifying a person's status. However, these symbols can sometimes be misleading or
misused.
2. Rights, Duties, and Obligations: Each status comes with its own set of rights and duties defined by
the societal norms. A right is a legitimate expectation one has from others in a different status, while
an obligation is what others can rightfully expect from the person. For example, an employer has the
right to expect certain behaviour from an employee, while the employee is obligated to fulfil that
expectation.
3. Governed by Norms: Social statuses are governed by norms that vary depending on the person,
situation, and status. Norms like "be honest" or "be truthful" are generally applicable but can vary in
practice depending on the context. For example, a doctor might not always tell a patient the full truth
about their condition.
4. Multiple Statuses: An individual can occupy multiple statuses simultaneously. For example, a
person might be a student, a brother, a customer, a son, and a member of a club, all in a single day.
The number of statuses one can occupy depends on the complexity of the society.
5. Influence on Careers: The statuses individuals occupy influence their career opportunities and
behavior. Certain societies offer specific statuses that are not available in others, limiting or
expanding individuals' career options accordingly.
6. Varying Degrees of Importance: Some statuses hold more importance than others in determining a
person’s position within society. For example, in modern societies, occupational status often holds
significant weight. In contrast, in some societies, kinship, religious, or political statuses might be
more important.
7. Contributes to Social Order: Social status contributes to the structure and stability of society. Most
individuals occupy pre-existing statuses rather than creating new ones. This helps maintain societal
order and continuity.
8. Hierarchical Distribution: Social statuses are not equally distributed among all individuals. Some
individuals occupy higher positions, while most occupy more ordinary statuses. Factors like
inheritance, social services, and societal norms influence this distribution.

Organization of Statuses

Individuals occupy multiple statuses that need to be integrated or organized properly for societal and
individual functioning. An individual’s various roles and statuses form an essential element of their
personality, and how well these roles are integrated affects their personal efficiency, confidence, and
contentment.

From a societal perspective, the total system of statuses must also be integrated to maintain social order.
Different statuses such as occupational, familial, religious, and political need to provide scope for
integration through interlocking systems of rights and obligations.
Status and Office

The term 'status' refers to a position within the broader institutional system of society, recognized and
supported by societal norms and values. An 'office,' however, is a position within a specific organization
governed by rules and often achieved rather than ascribed. Holding an office can confer status, depending on
the importance of the organization and the specific role within it.

Prestige, Esteem, and Rank

 Prestige: Refers to the societal evaluation of a status. It is the value that society places on a
particular status.
 Esteem: Refers to the evaluation of an individual’s performance within their role or status. It is the
personal regard one earns through their actions within a particular status.

Statuses are often ranked based on their prestige and the esteem individuals in those statuses can earn
through their performance. The ranking of social positions often reflects societal values and the perceived
importance of different roles.

By understanding these concepts, we gain a deeper insight into the structure of society and the roles
individuals play within it.

Ascribed and Achieved Statuses

There are two primary ways an individual in society can obtain their status: through 'ascription' or
'achievement'. Some statuses are inevitable for the individual, while others can be selected more freely.
Sociologist Ralph Linton introduced the concepts of 'ascribed' and 'achieved' statuses to differentiate these
types.

It is common to find societies where ascribed statuses are more prevalent than achieved ones, and vice versa.
However, all societies use both principles—of ascription and achievement—in assigning statuses to their
members.

(a) Ascribed Status

Ascribed statuses are those over which the individual has absolutely no choice. These statuses are derived
from membership in involuntary groups, such as sex group, age group, racial group, etc. From the beginning
stages of socialization, a newborn individual derives such statuses. These statuses are "ascribed" to the
individual before knowing their potentialities and definitely determine and limit the range of statuses they
may subsequently achieve or attempt to achieve.

Factors Influencing Ascribed Statuses

1. Sex: An individual's sex is a highly visible physiological fact that appears at birth and remains fixed
for life. Individuals are born as either male or female and remain so for life. This sex difference is
taken as one of the bases for ascribing status to individuals. Some achieved statuses are influenced
by this factor of sex.

It is wrong to assume that the male-female division of statuses is mainly based on inherent traits of
men and women. Biological attributes cannot explain the behavioural differences between men and
women. Moreover, social differences themselves are not fixed but change from one society to
another and from one time to another.
 Examples:

o Among the Tchambuli people, women are the breadwinners, whereas men look after
household work and spend time grooming themselves.
o Among the Mundugumor people, both women and men are equally aggressive.
o Among the Trobriand Islanders, except for breastfeeding, all other child-rearing tasks are
performed by the father.

These differences cannot be explained by biological attributes alone. The assignment of female status
to women is mainly due to her 'child-bearing function'. Her physical limitations mainly spring from
this fact. Women are thus forced to carry the embryo in their bodies for a long time and nurse it later
when it comes out. Women's work roles are often compatible with reproduction.

In modern societies, the statuses assigned to women have changed greatly, but some division of
labour between the sexes persists. In the occupational sphere today, although women are not
excluded, they are handicapped in competition against men in certain fields such as medicine, law,
college teaching, factory work, defence, and industry. In some jobs, such as coal mining and
structural steel work, women are excluded. For women, their ascribed statuses can limit their
opportunities for achieving certain statuses.

2. Age: All societies recognize differences in statuses and roles related to age. Like sex, age is a
definite and highly visible physiological fact. Unlike sex, age does not give rise to permanent
lifetime statuses. Age represents a condition that changes steadily.

The age relationship between given persons (e.g., father and son, younger brother and elder brother)
remains fixed throughout life. However, each living individual is subject to different age statuses
during their life span. Most societies recognize five main age statuses: infancy, childhood,
adolescence, adulthood, and old age. In some societies, the unborn and the dead are recognized as
two peculiar age-periods with their own importance.

Examples:

o The unborn may be seen as the spirits of departed ancestors in some cultures.
o Hindus have customs that mark the transition from the status of the unborn to the status of the
living.
o The transition from childhood to adolescence and then to adulthood is of tremendous
importance. During this transitional period, obvious physiological and mental changes occur.

In modern societies, the transition from childhood to adulthood involves significant strain due to
several reasons, such as the extended time between physiological maturity and social maturity and
the prolonged period between sexual maturity and marriage.

The roles assigned to the old also vary considerably from society to society. In some societies, older
adults are revered and respected; in others, they may be abandoned or expected to continue working
hard. An individual's power and prestige often increase with age in settled cultures because of the
accumulation of knowledge and experience.

3. Kinship: Kinship status reveals the individual's relation to their parents and siblings. The newborn
infant's status in the community is normally identified with that of the parents. This ascription is
arbitrary because there is no necessary relation between the capacities of the parents and those of the
offspring. However, it is socially convenient to relate the child to society through the parents.

A child may inherit the status of the parents soon after birth, as in the case of caste or race, or later,
as in the case of succession or inheritance. Many important statuses of the child, such as citizenship,
religious affiliation, and community membership, depend on the kinship factor. The child also
 acquires the status as a son or daughter, grandson, nephew, brother, cousin, etc., through kinship
connections.

4. Other Bases of Ascription: Besides age, sex, and kinship, other bases for status ascription include
race, place of birth, religion, class, caste, and even factors like illegitimacy, adoption, and divorce.
All these ascriptive factors, often referred to as the "accidents of birth," play an important role in
determining an individual's status in society.

(b) The Achieved Status

Achieved status refers to the social positions or roles that individuals attain through their own efforts,
choices, skills, or talents. These statuses are not assigned at birth but are earned throughout one's life. All
societies have some form of achieved statuses, and no society relies entirely on ascribed statuses (statuses
assigned at birth without personal choice). The extent to which a society allows people to achieve their
status varies greatly.

Even in societies that heavily emphasize ascribed statuses, there are always some individuals who change
their assigned positions in society because of their special talents or ambitions. History is full of such
individuals who have made significant impacts, often referred to as those who "make history."

To utilize people's abilities for common social goals, societies institutionalize the achievement of status.
This means that societies create systems that recognize and reward individuals who stand out, rather than
punishing them for being different. By allowing certain changes of status, a society can ensure that people
with exceptional abilities fill roles where average skills are not sufficient. This also helps prevent
unqualified people from occupying important positions.

Examples of Achieved Statuses:

1. Leaders in Specific Fields: Positions like leaders of combat teams, creators of artistic products, or
inventors are examples of statuses that are typically achieved. These roles are not determined by
birth but by individual accomplishments.
2. Societal Changes: In more primitive societies, ascribed statuses are often more prominent. In
contrast, civilized societies place a high value on achieved statuses due to factors such as the
dominance of commercial activities, urban living conditions, a greater division of labour, and rapid
social changes.
o In urban centres and commercial fields, opportunities for achievement are better. For
example, division of labour provides a talented individual with a chance to excel and secure a
status based on their efficiency and work.
o Rapid social change introduces new statuses that cannot be filled by ascription because they
are newly created and require specific achievements or skills.

Types of Achieved Statuses:

1. Status Based on Talent: Positions requiring special talents are typically achieved. For instance, no
ordinary person can easily achieve the status of a great artist, physicist, writer, or actor.
2. Status Based on Public Approval: Roles that depend on public recognition and approval are mostly
achieved. Examples include sportsmen, singers, actors, and public speakers, who can achieve high
status regardless of their humble beginnings.
3. Status Requiring Education: Positions that require extensive and costly education are usually
achieved. For example, becoming a doctor, psychiatrist, judge, lawyer, or engineer is only possible
through high levels of education.

In modern societies, most occupational statuses are achieved. Membership in various organizations is also
an achieved status because people are not obligated to join but choose to do so. Marital status, parental
status, and educational status are other examples of achieved statuses because one has the choice to become
a spouse, parent, or pursue education.

Functions of Achieved Status in Society:

Achieved statuses allow for a balance between competition and cooperation. While they encourage
individuals to strive for excellence in their chosen fields, they also ensure that the roles within a society are
filled with competent individuals.

The Interrelationship of Ascribed and Achieved Statuses

Ascribed and achieved statuses coexist and complement each other in all societies. Although they are
fundamentally different, both are essential for a society's functioning.

 Ascribed Statuses: Provide initial placement in society, often based on birth factors such as family
background, gender, or race. This gives individuals a sense of security and belonging that purely
achieved statuses might not offer. Not all positions should be open to competition, as this would
create a highly competitive environment where everyone is a potential rival for every social position
and prestige.
 Achieved Statuses: Offer freedom to choose a task or career path, encouraging individuals to
develop their talents and contribute meaningfully to society.

A society with both ascribed and achieved statuses creates a stable structure where some roles are given
based on birth, reducing pressure on individuals, while others are open to personal achievement, allowing
for growth and innovation.

Differences Across Societies

Societies vary significantly in their emphasis on ascribed versus achieved statuses.

 Medieval Societies: Religious, class, and occupational statuses were largely ascribed and could not
be achieved.
 Totalitarian Societies: Even in the 20th century, political status is often ascribed.
 Caste Societies (e.g., India): Caste status is typically determined by birth and kinship.
 Mobile Societies with Class Structures: Class statuses are mostly achieved.
 Free Societies: In societies with many voluntary associations, achieved statuses are highly prevalent.

In summary, a balance between ascribed and achieved statuses allows societies to maintain stability while
encouraging personal growth and societal progress.

Power

Meaning of Power:
Power is a fundamental aspect of human society and a universal phenomenon, present in all social
relationships. Society is built on power relations, such as a father exercising his power over his child, a
master over his slave, a teacher over his student, a victor over the vanquished, an employer over his
employee, and an army commander over the soldiers. These are examples of social power.

Definitions of Power:

1. Max Weber: Power is "the ability to control the behavior of others, even in the absence of their
consent."
2. Ian Robertson: "Power is the capacity to participate effectively in a decision-making process."
3. N.J. Demerath III and Gerald Marwell: "Power may be defined as the capacity to get things done
despite obstacles and resistance." Power can be exercised through various means such as threat,
 persuasion, coercion, and inspiration. Large-scale power is usually embedded in organizational
structures, such as governments, political parties, businesses, schools, churches, or protest
movements. In each setting, power involves risks as those in power can betray common trust. Power
may be exercised openly or subtly, legally or illegally, justly or unjustly, and can derive from many
sources like wealth, status, or organizational efficiency. Ultimately, power is based on the ability to
compel obedience, potentially through force.

Social Power and Its Identifications:

 Power and Prestige: Power and prestige are closely linked; the class with the most prestige often
has the most power, and vice versa.
 Knowledge, Eminence, Skill, and Competence: While these contribute to prestige, they do not
necessarily accompany power.
 Power and Influence: Influence is persuasive, while power is coercive. Influence can occur without
power, and power does not always require influence.
 Power and Dominance: Power is a sociological concept, while dominance is psychological. Power
can be held by groups or individuals, whereas dominance is a personal trait. Power and dominance
are distinct; one may find dominant individuals in powerless groups and submissive individuals in
powerful ones.
 Power and Rights: Rights are associated with privileges and authority, not with power itself. A
person may have a right without the power to exercise it. Rights require support within the social
structure, while power does not necessarily require such backing.
 Power, Force, and Authority: Power is neither force nor authority but makes both possible. Force
is manifest power, and authority is institutionalized power. Power is the ability to use force; when
power is not successful, it ceases to be power.

Weber's Views on Power

Weber viewed power as a characteristic of organizations and organizational roles rather than a personal
attribute. He highlighted that:

1. Power Relationships: Power is pervasive and present in all forms of human relationships, not
limited to the political realm.
2. Subtlety and Variety of Power: Power is not just coercion or force; it includes various subtle
forms.
3. Importance of Followers' Attitudes: Understanding the attitudes of both leaders and followers is
crucial in any organizational setting, as their relationship is neither automatic nor unchanging.

Authority

Meaning of Authority:
Authority is the legitimate exercise of power and is a foundational element of social order in human society.
It is not purely a political phenomenon; it exists in all types of organizations, both political and non-political.

Definitions of Authority:

1. E.A. Shils: "Authority is that form of power which orders or articulates the actions of other actors
through commands which are effective because those who are commanded regard the commands as
legitimate."
2. Max Weber: Authority refers to legitimate power.
3. Simplified Definition: Authority is power regarded as legitimate by the followers.

Authority vs. Power:

Authority implies legitimacy and is generally accepted by those subject to it, as it becomes a social norm.
Coercive power, however, is based on fear and tends to be unstable. A system must be viewed as legitimate
by its participants to survive.

Types of Authority

Max Weber distinguished three types of legitimate authority, each based on the consent of the governed:

1. Traditional Authority:
o Description: Based on long-standing customs and traditions. People obey because "it has
always been that way."
o Examples: Monarchies, tribal leaders.
o Characteristics: Power is legitimized by ancient customs and is often seen as sacred. It
emphasizes continuity with the past and is commonly found in established institutions like
churches and courts.
2. Rational-Legal Authority:
o Description: Power is legitimized by formal rules and laws.
o Examples: Modern political systems with written constitutions and laws.
o Characteristics: Authority is based on legal procedures and rules. It is most common in
bureaucratic organizations where power is exercised within legally defined limits.
3. Charismatic Authority:
o Description: Power is legitimized by the exceptional qualities or charisma of the leader.
o Examples: Leaders like Jesus Christ, Gandhi, Hitler, and Napoleon.
o Characteristics: Charismatic leaders are seen as having extraordinary qualities and inspire
devotion among followers. However, this type of authority is inherently unstable, as it lacks
formal rules and traditions.

Authority and Status

Authority is linked to social statuses rather than individuals themselves. Individuals exercise authority as
long as they occupy a particular status within an association or organization. When the status changes, so
does the authority. Authority tends to become more stable and well-established as organizations grow more
structured, moving from mere leadership to institutionalized roles.