Module 3 - The Process of Communication
● Communication is not done in a vacuum.
● Communication IS A PROCESS involving THE EXCHANGE of
information.
● It first starts off with the SENDER who ENCODES and SENDS the
message.
● The message is carried via the COMMUNICATION CHANNEL.
Context of Communication
Intrapersonal - This takes place within the individual.
Interpersonal - The sharing of information among people. This
can be formal or informal and depends on a variety of factors like
psychology of two parties, relation between them.
Small Group - Interactions between three or more people who are
connected through a common purpose, mutual influence and a
shared identity.
Organizational - occurs within a particular social system
composed of interdependent groups attempting to achieve
commonly recognized goals.
Mass - occurs when a small number of people send messages to
a large anonymous and usually heterogeneous audience through
the use of specialized communication media.
Academic - methods of communication that are highly structured
and generally only used in pedagogical(teaching) settings.
Public - the act of dispersing a message to a specific group
through the use of various tools or methods.
Intercultural - the study and practice of communication across
cultural contexts.
Elements of Communication
● Dynamic - layers.
● Continuous - Communicating even when we sleep.
● Irreversible - What is said, can never be unsaid.
● Inevitable - Communication is a MUST!!
● Contextual - Changes based on situation and other variables.
● Inherent - We can’t help ourselves, we were created to speak.
Elements of Communication Process
● Sender
● Conceptualization
● Encoding
● Medium
● Channel
● Receiver
● Decoding
● Feedback
The Chart Illustrating The Process of Communication
Medium VS Channel
● Medium is HOW the message is transferred.
● This is either Oral or Written.
● Eg. Email, Text, Video, Letter, Memo.
● Channel is by WHAT MEANS the message will be
transferred.
● This is via a device, internet, projector.
● Eg. Phone Calls, Text Messages, Emails, Video, Radio &
Social Media.
Elements of Communication Process
● Sender: The person who initiates the message.
● Conceptualisation:
● Encoding:
● Message: The information conveyed.
● Channel: The medium through which the message is sent.
● Medium: How the message is conveyed.
● Decoding:
● Receiver: The person who receives the message.
● Feedback: The response to the message.
● Noise/Barrier: Anything that interferes with the
communication process.
● Facilitator: Anything that helps in the communication
process.
Different types of Barriers
● Internal/Physiological
● External
● Semantic - Language, Age(Slangs and Jargons)
Distortion Tactics
● False flag operation: A covert operation designed to
deceive an adversary.
● Fallacies: Errors in reasoning that undermine the validity of
an argument.
● Gaslighting: A form of psychological manipulation to make
someone question their own sanity.
● Deep Fakes: Highly realistic, artificially generated media.
● Propaganda: The deliberate spread of misinformation or
biased information to help or injure a person, cause or
institution.
● Conspiracy theory: A belief that a group of people is
involved in a plot.
● Big lie: A deliberate falsehood repeated so often that it is
accepted as truth.
● Misinformation: Unintentional spreading of false or
inaccurate information.
● Disinformation: Intentional spreading of false or inaccurate
information.
● Miscommunication: A misunderstanding or failure to
communicate effectively.
● Misinterpretation: When the receiver misunderstands the
intended message.
● False News: false or misleading information.
Functions of Linguistic, Paralinguistic, and Non-Verbal Features
● Linguistic Features: The words and grammar used.
● Paralinguistic Features: Tone of voice, pitch, and speed.
● Non-Verbal Features: Body language, facial expressions,
and gestures.
● Functions: To convey meaning, express emotions, and
establish relationships.
Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
● Verbal Communication: Using words to convey messages.
● Non-Verbal Communication: Using body language, facial
expressions, and other cues to convey messages.
● Relationship: Often, non-verbal communication reinforces
or contradicts verbal communication.
Factors Influencing Audience Responses
● Credibility: The perceived trustworthiness of the
communicator.
● Attractiveness: The perceived appeal of the communicator.
● Similarity: The perceived similarity between the
communicator and the audience.
● Social Proof: The tendency to follow the behavior of others.
● Scarcity: The perception that a resource is limited or in
short supply.
● Authority: The perception that the communicator has power
or expertise.
● Reciprocity: The tendency to return favors.
● Commitment and Consistency: The tendency to be
consistent with previous commitments.
● Liking: The tendency to be more persuaded by people we
like.
● Consensus: The perception that others agree with a
particular idea or opinion.
Additional Factors Related to Misinformation and Miscommunication
● Psychological Factors: Confirmation bias, cognitive
dissonance, emotional bias, groupthink.
● Technological Factors: Social media algorithms,
deepfakes, spread of misinformation through online
communities.
● Societal Factors: Lack of media literacy, polarization,
political and economic pressures.
● Individual Factors: Personal biases, lack of critical thinking
skills, overreliance on authority figures.
1. Systematic:
● Meaning: Language follows a set of rules or patterns.
● Example: In English, we say "I eat apples," not "Apples eat
I." This is because the subject (I) usually comes before the
verb (eat).
2. Maturational:
● Meaning: Language development happens naturally over
time.
● Example: Babies start by babbling, then they learn single
words, and eventually they can form sentences.
3. Dynamic:
● Meaning: Language is always changing.
● Example: New words are created (like "selfie"), and the
meaning of old words can change (like "cool," which used to
mean "cold").
4. Symbolic:
● Meaning: Symbols represent ideas, objects, or actions.
● Example: The word "cat" doesn't look like a cat, but we all
agree that it represents a furry animal with whiskers.
5. Human:
● Meaning: Language is unique to humans.
● Example: While animals can communicate, only humans
have complex language with grammar, syntax, and the
ability to express abstract ideas.
6. Non-Instinctive:
● Meaning: We don't automatically know language; we have
to learn it.
● Example: Babies born deaf can't learn to speak without
hearing language.
7. Creative:
● Meaning: Language allows us to express our thoughts,
feelings, and ideas in new and interesting ways.
● Example: Poets can write beautiful poems, and writers can
create exciting stories.
8. Verbal:
● Meaning: Language allows us to express our thoughts,
feelings, and ideas in new and interesting ways.
● Example: Poets can write beautiful poems, and writers can
create exciting stories.
Ad hominem:
● Definition: Attacking the person making the argument
instead of addressing the argument itself.
Straw man:
● Definition: Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it
easier to attack.
Appeal to authority:
● Definition: Relying on the authority of someone to support
an argument, even if they are not an expert on the topic.
Appeal to emotion:
● Definition: Using emotional appeals to persuade rather than
logical reasoning.
False dilemma:
● Definition: Presenting only two options when there are
actually more.
Slippery slope:
● Definition: Arguing that a small action will lead to a chain of
events that will result in a disastrous outcome.
Hasty generalization:
● Definition: Drawing a conclusion based on a small sample
size.
Post hoc ergo propter hoc:
● Definition: Assuming that because one event followed
another, the first event caused the second.
Circular reasoning:
● Definition: Using the conclusion to prove the premise.
Begging the question:
● Definition: Assuming the conclusion is true in the premise.
Bandwagon:
● Definition: Arguing that something is true because many
people believe it.
Ad populum:
● Definition: Appealing to the emotions of the crowd.
False analogy:
● Definition: Comparing two things that are not similar
enough.
Red herring:
● Definition: Introducing an irrelevant topic to distract from the
main issue.
Complex question:
● Definition: Asking a question that assumes a certain
answer.
Equivocation:
● Definition: Using a word in two different senses in the same
argument.
Non sequitur:
● Definition: Drawing a conclusion that does not logically
follow from the premises.
Tu quoque:
● Definition: Claiming that an opponent is hypocritical
because they have done the same thing they are criticizing.
Obscuration:
● Definition: Deliberately making an argument or issue
confusing or difficult to understand.
Tabloid Thinking:
● Definition: Oversimplifying complex issues or relying on
sensationalism to attract attention.
Ad hominem:
● Example: "You can't trust John's opinion on climate change
because he's a liberal."
Straw man:
● Example: "You want to ban guns? That means you want
criminals to have all the weapons!"
Appeal to authority:
● Example: "I'm a doctor, so I know what's best for you." (even
if the doctor is not an expert on the topic)
Appeal to emotion:
● Example: "If you don't donate to our charity, you're a
heartless person."
False dilemma:
● Example: "You're either with us or against us."
Slippery slope:
● Example: "If we legalize marijuana, people will start using
harder drugs."
Hasty generalization:
● Example: "I met one person from Jamaica, and they were
rude. Therefore, all Jamaicans are rude."
Post hoc ergo propter hoc:
● Example: "I wore my lucky socks, and we won the game.
Therefore, my lucky socks caused us to win."
Circular reasoning:
● Example: "The Bible is true because it says so in the Bible."
Begging the question:
● Example: "The best way to study is to study hard. But how
do you know if you're studying hard?"
Bandwagon:
● Example: "Everyone is using this new phone, so it must be
the best."
Ad populum:
● Example: "We should support this candidate because he's
the most popular."
False analogy:
● Example: "Comparing apples to oranges."
Red herring:
● Example: "Sure, we have problems with poverty, but let's
not forget that we also have beautiful beaches."
Complex question:
● Example: "Are you still beating your wife?" (assumes the
person has beaten their wife)
Equivocation:
● Example: "I'm not lying. I'm just telling a different version of
the truth."
Non sequitur:
● Example: "I like chocolate, so I'm going to be a doctor."
Tu quoque:
● Example: "You can't criticize me for speeding when you
were speeding last week."
Obscuration:
● Example: A politician gives a long, rambling speech that is
full of jargon and technical terms, making it difficult for the
audience to understand their stance on an issue.
Tabloid Thinking:
● Example: A news article sensationalizes a story by focusing
on the most dramatic or shocking details, rather than
providing a balanced and informative account.
