HEAT TRANSFER

Introduction to the different

modes
Ranjan Ganguly
Course Code: PE/PC/B/T/223
Course Outcome (CO): At the end of the course the students will be able to
 CO1: Describe the primary modes of heat transfer and interpret the
corresponding governing physics (K2: Understand)
 CO2: Develop the governing equations of heat transfer through conduction,
convection and radiation in simple representative configurations (K3: Apply)
 CO3: Apply the relevant laws and correlations for solving heat transfer problems
involving one or multiple modes of heat transfer (K3: Apply)
 CO4: Analyze performance of different heat transfer devices (K4: Analyze)

Books:
1. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by D. P. Dewitt and F. P. Incropera
2. Heat and Mass Transfer by Y. Çengel
3. Heat Transfer by N.A. Ozisik
Mapping of CO with PO and PSOs

Program Outcome (General) Programs-specific Outcome (PSO) for

 Engineering knowledge Power Engg. Dept.
 Problem analysis.
 Design & Development of Solutions  PSO1: Interdisciplinary Domain Exposure: Interpret
 Investigation of Complex Problem problems and apply enabling technologies to develop
 Modern Tool Usage: comprehensive solutions for the energy and power sectors
 The Engineer and Society:  PSO2: Economic and sustainable energy resources:
Assess and analyze energy resources and formulate
 Environment and Sustainability:
optimized solutions for sustainable development
 Ethics:
 PSO3: Safe and secured energy: Recognize safety,
 Individual and Team Work: control and management aspects of new generation
 Communication: energy technology
 Project Management and Finance: 
 Life-long Learning:
Why study Heat Transfer?
 Heat Transfer enhancement
 Boiler, condenser, heat exchangers

 Electronic devices

 Electrical machines (transformers,

generators, etc.)
 Cutting tools

 …

 Heat Transfer abatement

 Turbine insulation

 Thermos

 Space station

 …

 Heat Transfer (& temperature) control

 Chemical processes

 Bio-heat transfer

 …
Difference between Thermodynamics
& Heat Transfer
 Heat: Energy crossing the system boundary (energy in
transit) due to temperature difference
 Thermodynamics:
 How much heat is transferred (Q, Q or dQ/dt)
 How much work is done (W, W or dW/dt)
 Initial and final states of the system and the relation between heat
and work
 Predicts heat transfer under quasi-equilibrium condition
 Heat Transfer:
 Deals with actual irreversible mode of heat transfer
 At what rate the heat is transferred (dQ/dt)
 What has led to the transfer of heat (temperature difference or
gradient that has led to the heat transfer)
 In what mode the heat is transferred (role of the medium)
Modes of Heat Transfer

 Conduction: Transfer of heat from one part of a substance to

another part of the same substance, or from one substance to
another in physical contact with it, without any bulk displacement of
the medium (media).

 Convection: Heat transfer that occurs between a surface and

a fluid in motion) when they are at different temperatures (involves
the combined effects of conduction and advection).

 Radiation: Heat transfer that occurs between two surfaces at

different temperatures. It results from the energy emitted by any
surface in the form of electromagnetic waves.

Actual heat transfer mostly combine all the modes

 Conduction
Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of
the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by
free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is
proportional to the temperature difference across the
layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer.
Heat conduction
through a large plane
wall of thickness x
and area A.

7
Mode of thermal conduction

 In solids:
 Lattice vibration
 Free Electrons
 In liquids:
 Intermolecular collision
 Molecular diffusion
 In gases
 Intermolecular collision
 Molecular diffusion
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction

Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the ability of

a material to conduct heat. Evaluated as the rate of
heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material
per unit area per unit temperature difference It is an
intrinsic property of the medium (solid, liquid or
gas)

Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the

temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing
temperature, and the temperature gradient becomes
negative when temperature decreases with
increasing x. The negative sign in the equation
ensures that heat transfer in the positive x direction
is a positive quantity.
Thermal conductivity

The range of thermal conductivity of

various materials at room temperature.
Thermal Diffusivity
cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity
per unit mass
cp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity
per unit volume
 Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents
how fast heat diffuses through a material

A material that has a high thermal

conductivity or a low heat capacity will
obviously have a large thermal diffusivity.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster
the propagation of heat into the medium.
A small value of thermal diffusivity means
that heat is mostly absorbed by the
material and a small amount of heat is
conducted further.
Convection=Conduction + Advection
Convection=Conduction + Advection
V(y)

T(y)

Newton’s Law of Cooling

[W/m2] Not a Law !

[W]

h = Heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

As= Heat transfer surface area (m2)
Ts= Surface temperature; T= Free-stream temperature (K)

Heat transfer at the point of ZERO-SLIP takes place by pure conduction

Convection heat transfer coefficient
The convection heat transfer
coefficient h is not a property
of the fluid.
It is an experimentally
determined parameter
whose value depends on all
the variables influencing
convection such as
- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
 Types of Convection
Forced convection: If the fluid is forced
to flow over the surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the wind.
Natural (or free) convection: If the fluid
motion is caused by buoyancy forces that
are induced by density differences due to
the variation of temperature in the fluid.
Mixed convection: When the effect of
both free and forced convections are
comparable
Thermal Radiation
• Thermal Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in
the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations
of the atoms or molecules within 0.1 – 100 µm
wavelength
• Does not require the presence of an intervening
medium.
• Occurs at the speed of light and suffers no attenuation
in a vacuum.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit
thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids,
liquids, and gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation
to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a
surface phenomenon for solids.
 Stefan–Boltzmann law
 = 5.670  108 W/m2 · K4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at the maximum rate.

Radiation emitted
by real surfaces
Emissivity  : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for
which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1.

Blackbody radiation: the maximum amount of radiation that

can be emitted from a surface at a specified temperature
 Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a
surface that is absorbed by the surface. 0   1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at
a given temperature and wavelength are equal.

The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity 

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Absorption and Emission of Radiation

Energy out = Energy in

Emitted energy/Incident energy = Emissivity = 
Net radiation heat transfer: When a surface is completely enclosed by a
The difference between the much larger (or black) surface at temperature
rates of radiation emitted by the Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that
surface and the radiation does not intervene with radiation, the net rate
absorbed. of radiation heat transfer between these
two surfaces is given by
The determination of the net
rate of heat transfer by radiation
between two surfaces is a
complicated matter since it
depends on
• the properties of the surfaces
• their orientation relative to
each other
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with
radiation
Radiation is usually
significant relative to
conduction or natural
convection, but
negligible relative to Radiation heat transfer between a
forced convection. surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
Simultaneous heat transfer mechanisms
 Opaque solids: By conduction
 Transparent and semitransparent solids: Conduction
and radiation

 Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in

a still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and
radiation in a flowing fluid.
 In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is
either by conduction or convection, depending on the
presence of any bulk fluid motion.
 Convection = Conduction + Advection (bulk flow)
 Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.

 Most gases between two solid surfaces do not

interfere with radiation.
 Liquids are usually strong absorbers of
radiation. Although there are three mechanisms
of heat transfer, a medium may involve
only two of them simultaneously.
Combined Convection & Radiation
When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:

Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined

Includes the effects of both convection and radiation
 First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy
principle) states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
The net change (increase or
decrease) in the total energy of
the system during a process is
equal to the difference between
the total energy entering and the
total energy leaving the system
during that process.

The energy balance for any

system undergoing any process
in the rate form

For Closed System

For Open System

Examples

-13.33 kW 13

Ans: 104.6 oC

Ans: 43.5 kW/m2K

 Example :
Consider a person standing in a breezy room
at 20°C (both wall temperature and the air
temperature). Determine the total rate of heat
transfer from this person if the exposed
surface area and the average outer surface
temperature of the person are 1.6 m2 and
29°C, respectively, and the convection heat
transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2K.

 Solution :
Heat is transfered from the person by convection and radiation. From the
above table the emissivity of human skin is 0.95,
W
·
Q conv=hAs(Ts -T)=6  1.6m2  (29  20) C  86.4W
m2  C
·
Q rad
 εσ A s (Ts4  Tsurr
4
)
W
 0.95  5.67  10 8  1.6m 2  (302 4  393 4 )K 4  81.7 W
m2  K 4
Examples
A 1000-W iron is left on the iron board with its base exposed to
the air at 20°C. The convection heat transfer coefficient between
the base surface and the surrounding air is 35 W/m2K. If the base
has an emissivity of 0.6 and a surface area of 0.02 m2, determine
the temperature of the base of the iron.

Ans: 674 oC
 Examples
A thin metal plate is insulated on the back and exposed
to solar radiation on the front surface. The exposed
surface of the plate has an emissivity and absorptivity of
0.7 for solar radiation. If solar radiation is incident on the
plate at a rate of 700 W/m2 and the surrounding air
temperature is 10°C, determine the surface
temperature of the plate under steady state. Take the
convection heat transfer coefficient to be 30 W/m2 K,
and (a) disregard any heat loss by radiation, (b) consider
radiative heat loss to the surrounding that is also at 10oC