Requirements of structural design:

Structural design is an iterative process through which the layout and scantlings for a structure
are determined, such that it meets all the requirements of structural adequacy. The overall
configuration, which are in general dictated by non-structural consideration, such as volume
and space requirements, global stability, safety, etc. are required to be achieved in the design.

In general terms the major steps that are involved can be summarized as follows:

1. Identify load and load combinations acting on the structure as a whole, or on its main
sub- components.
2. Select initial structural layout and scantlings. In general this is based on past experience
with similar structures.
3. Identify structure’s main components, and determine through structural analysis the
loads and load combinations acting on each component.
4. Identify relevant limit states and associated factors of safety.
5. Check structural adequacy. If any limit state is violated, adjust scantlings and repeat the
analysis and the structural checks. Perform the iterations required to converge to a
structurally adequate design.
6. Check other limit state, such as fatigue, which requires the selection of main structural
detail configurations. Also check the adequacy of the design against accidental loads.
If the structure is found to be inadequate, then new design iterations have to be
conducted.
7. ‘Optimize’ structural design. Once an adequate design has been achieved it is in general
possible to ‘optimize’ it for a given objective. The objective depends on the structure’s
intended use, and can be, for example, the structural weight or the cost of fabrication
and installation. Thus, once a new configuration and set of scantlings are derived,
structural adequacy (Step d) has to be checked again, in an iterative fashion (Figure 1).

Classification of structural analysis

The ship structure can be classified into primary, secondary and tertiary elements as shown in
Figure 2. The first level of structure usually considered is the complete hull as a beam; this is
called the primary structure or hull girder as shown in Figure 3. In this level the ship is
idealized as a simple beam – a floating box girder that is internally stiffened and subdivided –
and in which the decks and bottom structure are flanges and the side shell and any longitudinal
bulkheads are the webs. Superstructure may also be considered depending on its effectiveness.
A part of the overall structure is cut out to show the different forces and moments to be dealt
with in beam theory. That part is called a hull module as shown in Figure 3. Secondary structure
consists of stiffened panels and grillages bounded by the decks, bulkheads and the shell.
Tertiary structure may be panels of plates bounded by stiffeners or elements of stiffeners
themselves (Figure 2).

The forces and moments to be considered are:

i. Vertical longitudinal bending moment MZ (most significant).

ii. Horizontal longitudinal bending moment MY.
iii. Longitudinal twisting moment MX.
iv. Vertical shear force Q.

Stress can be classified in a similar way to the structure in which the stresses are occurring the
loads, which cause the stresses:

Primary: stresses due to bending, shear and torsion in the main hull girder.

Secondary:stresses in a stiffened grillage due to bending and membrane effects.

Tertiary:membrane stresses in panels between stiffeners.

The following assumptions must be taken:

1. Plane cross sections remain plane.

2. Prismatic beam (no openings or discontinuities).
3. Deflection and distortion caused by shear and torsion do not affect hull girder bending.
4. Material is homogeneous and elastic.
 Figure 1 Strength based design procedure

2. Classification of structural analysis

Plane cross sections remain plane.
Prismatic beam (no openings or discontinuities).
Deflection and distortion caused by shear and torsion do not affect
bending.
Material is homogeneous and elastic.

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Figure 2 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary structure

3
Figure 3 Levels of structural analysis

4
Loads can also be classified according to how they vary with time. They are either static,
slowly-varying or rapidly-varying. The principal loads on ships are:

Ship
1.3.1.loads andloads
Static Stresses

Loads can also be

Vertical classified
shear according to
and longitudinal how they
bending varywater:
in still with Atime.
shipThey are either
floating in stillstatic,
water
slowly-varying or rapidly-varying. The principal loads on ships are:
has unevenly distributed weight owing to both cargo distribution and structural
Static loads
distribution. The buoyancy distribution is also non-uniform since the underwater

• sectionalshear
Vertical area is
andnotlongitudinal
constant along the length.
bending Total
in still weight
water: andfloating
A ship total buoyancy are of
in still water
has unevenly
course distributed
balanced. But at eachweight owing
section theretowill
bothbe cargo distribution
a resultant force or and
load,structural
either an
distribution. The buoyancy distribution is also non-uniform since the underwater
excess ofarea
sectional buoyancy or excessalong
is not constant of load.
theSince theTotal
length. vessel remains
weight andintact there are vertical
total buoyancy are of
course
upwardbalanced. But at each
and downward forcessection
tendingthere will bethe
to distort a resultant force or
vessel, which areload, eithertoan
referred as
excess of buoyancy or excess of load. Since the vessel remains intact there are vertical
vertical and
upward shearing forces.forces
downward The variation
tending toindistort
the vertical loading
the vessel, willare
which tend to bend
referred to the
as
vertical shearing forces. The variation in the vertical loading will tend to
vessel either to sagging or to hogging condition depending on the relative weight andbend the vessel
either to sagging or to hogging condition depending on the relative weight and
buoyancyforces
buoyancy forces(Figure
(Figure4).4).

Figure 4 Vertical shear and longitudinal bending in still water

• Longitudinal shear in still water: When the vessel hogs and sags in still water and at
 sea,
Longitudinal shear
shear forces in still
similar water:
to the When
vertical theforces
shear vesselwill
hogsbeand sags in
present in the
stilllongitudinal
water and at
plane. Vertical
sea, shear andsimilar
forces longitudinal shear stresses
to the vertical are complementary
shear forces will be presentand
inexist in
the longitudinal
conjunction with a change of bending moment between adjacent sections of the hull
plane. The
girder. Vertical and longitudinal
magnitude shear shear
of the longitudinal stresses
forceare complementary
is greater at the neutral andaxis
exist
andin
decreases towards
conjunction with athe top and
change ofbottom
bendingofmoment
the hull girder
between(Figure 5). sections of the hull
adjacent
girder. The magnitude of the longitudinal shear force is greater at the neutral axis and
decreases towards the top and bottom of the hull girder (Figure 5).

Figure 5 longitudinal shear forces

 Dry docking loads: docking a ship on blocks imposes very high vertical loads on
ship’s bottom. As all ships may be expected to be docked at some time, it is necessary
to design for the docking condition.
 • Dry docking loads: docking a ship on blocks imposes very high vertical loads on
ship’s bottom. As all ships may be expected to be docked at some time, it is necessary
to design for the docking condition.

• Thermal loads: stresses in the ship structure can be caused by different temperatures
in one part with respect to another part, e.g. high air temperature in addition to solar
radiation may lead to the upper deck being as much as 40oC hotter than the hull below
water causing thermal stresses in the ship’s hull girder.

• Grounding loads: for most ships, grounding is an accident condition and does not
directly affect the design of the structure. For vessels expected to ground, such as
landing craft and small boats, bending stresses on the hull resulting from grounding
must be calculated as well as local loads.

• Lifting loads: some small vessels may be designed to be lifted in slings or from lifting
eyes. This kind of loading can be calculated using simple beam theory for the light
displacement condition.

Slowly varying loads

• Vertical shear, longitudinal shear and longitudinal bending in seaway: When a ship
is in a seaway the waves with their troughs and crests produce a greater variation in the
buoyancy forces and therefore can increase the bending moment, vertical and
longitudinal shear forces. Classically the extreme effects can be illustrated with the
vessel balanced on a wave of length equal to that of the ship. If the crest of the wave is
amidships the buoyancy forces will tend to hog the vessel. If the trough is amidships
the buoyancy forces will tend to sag the vessel (Figure 6).

Figure 6 Wave bending moments

• Horizontal bending and torsion: these are caused by wave action. A ship heading
 obliquely
Horizontal (45bending
o and will
) to a wave torsion: these aretocaused
be subjected rightingbymoments
wave action. A shipdirection
of opposite heading
atobliquely
its ends twisting
(45 ) to athe
o hullwill
wave and be
putting it in torsion.
subjected In most
to righting ships,ofhorizontal
moments bending
opposite direction
and torsional moments are much lower than bending in the vertical plane and can
at its ends
usually twisting However,
be ignored. the hull and puttingmoments
torsional it in torsion. In most
in ship ships, horizontal
with extremely bending
wide and long
deck openings (such
and torsional momentsas container
are muchships) arethan
lower significant
bending(Figure
in the7).
vertical plane and can
usually be ignored. However, torsional moments in ship with extremely wide and long
deck openings (such as container ships) are significant (Figure 7).
 and torsional moments are much lower than bending in the vertical plane and can
usually be ignored. However, torsional moments in ship with extremely wide and long
deck openings (such as container ships) are significant (Figure 7).

Figure 7 Torsion

• Racking: When a ship is rolling, the deck tends to move laterally relative to the bottom
 Racking:
structureWhen a ship
and the shell is
onrolling,
one sidethe
to deck
move tends to move
vertically laterally
relative to the relative to the
other side. This
type ofstructure
bottom deformation is referred
and the to asside
shell on one ‘racking’.
to moveTransverse bulkheads
vertically relative primarily
to the resist
other side.
such transverse deformation (Figure 8).
This type of deformation is referred to as ‘racking’. Transverse bulkheads primarily
resist such transverse deformation (Figure 8).

Distortion of Rolling of ship

structure 7 accelerates
structure, tending
to distort it

Figure 8 Racking

 •Sloshing
Sloshing of liquid
of liquid cargo:
cargo: specially
specially significant
significant in tankers.
in tankers.
• Shipping of green water on deck: if a ship proceeds at speed even into moderate seas,
 Shipping of green
green water water on
is thrown deck:
onto the ifdeck.
a ship
Theproceeds at speed
forecastle even front
and bridge into moderate seas,
will be the worst
affected
green waterparts.
is thrown onto the deck. The forecastle and bridge front will be the worst
• Wave slap on sides and foredecks: this is due to the action of the waves as they hit the
affected
ship. parts.
 •Wave
Panting:
slap onPanting refers
sides and to tendency
foredecks: this for theto
is due shell
the plating to the
action of work in and
waves asout
theyinhit
a bellow
the
like fashion, and is caused by the fluctuating pressures on the hull at the ends when the
ship.
 Panting: Panting refers to tendency for the shell plating to work in and out in a bellow
like fashion, and is caused by the fluctuating pressures on the hull at the ends when
the ship is amongst waves. These forces are most severe when the vessel is running
 ship is amongst waves. These forces are most severe when the vessel is running into
waves and is pitching heavily.
• Inertial loads: they are caused by the motion of heavy masses such as masts, containers
and other heavy objects following the motion of the hull. Provided that the local
accelerators are known, the estimation of inertial loads is straightforward ( ).
• Berthing loads: they are extremely variable. They depend on the officer’s skill, the
weather conditions and the structure to which the ship is berthed.
• Launching loads: these loads should be checked by the shipbuilder. The bending
stresses in the hull girder are moderate. The fore poppet should be carefully designed
and the fore end of the hull structure may be temporarily stiffened if necessary.
• Ice loads: these are localized loads. Some ships are strengthened to have ice breaking
capability.
• Wheel loads: they result from vehicles, for example on RO/RO vessels. They consist
of dead weight and inertia loads.