CVL342

Ch.1: Introduction to
Design of Steel Structures
PROF. SVETHA VENKATACHARI
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
IIT DELHI

Outline
Design Process
Structural Design – Variable parameters
Steel structures: Examples
Structural Steel Sections & Members
Structural Steel - Properties
Design Philosophies
Limit State Design
Design Loads & Load Combinations

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 Design Process
Structural design is a systematic & iterative process that
involves:
1) Identification of intended use & occupancy of a structure – by the
owner
2) Development of architectural plans & layout – by the architect
◦ Conceptual design
3) Identification of structural framework – by engineer
4) Estimation of structural loads depending on use & occupancy
◦ Preliminary design
5) Analysis of the structure to determine member & connection design
forces
◦ Final design

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Design Process
6) Design of structural members & connections
◦ Detailed design
7) Verification of design
8) Fabrication & Erection – by steel fabricator & contractor
◦ Off-site fabrication in shop
9) Inspection & Approval – by state building official
◦ To meet code requirements

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 Primary Responsibilities
The primary responsibilities are:
◦ Owner - primary responsibility is deciding the use &
occupancy, & approving the architectural plans of the building
and provide funding
◦ Architect - primary responsibility is ensuring that the
architectural plan of the building interior is appropriate for the
intended use, meets local regulation & the overall building is
aesthetically pleasing.
◦ Engineer – primary responsibility is ensuring the safety &
serviceability of the structure, i.e., designing the building to
carry the loads safely & meets performance requirements
under Serviceability Limit State (SLS).

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Primary Responsibilities
◦ Fabricator – primary responsibility is ensuring that the
designed members & connections are fabricated
economically in the shop or field as required.
◦ Contractor/Erector - primary responsibility is ensuring
that the members & connections are economically
assembled (erected) in the field to build the structure.
◦ Building Official – primary responsibility is ensuring that
the built structure satisfies the appropriate building codes
accepted by the government.

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 Structural Design
Conceptually, from an engineering standpoint, the parameters that can be varied (somewhat)
are:
◦ The material of construction
◦ The structural framing plan
The choices for the material include:
◦ Steel
◦ Reinforced concrete
◦ Wood
◦ Steel-concrete composite construction.
The choices for the structural framing plan include:
◦ Moment resisting frames (MRF).
◦ Braced frames.
◦ Mixed frames
◦ Concrete core structures and so on.
The engineer can also innovate a new structural framing plan for a particular structure if
required.

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Structural Design
The design process is a loop:

Develop loads acting on structure (based on occupancy, height, location etc.)

Assume material types and structural framing

Assume dimensions, structural conditions and cross sections

Structural Analysis to get forces

Selection of cross sections to satisfy structural requirements (forces)

Does the design violate the initial assumptions?

YES NO

Final Design

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 Roles and Responsibilities of the
Structural Steel Designer
Arrange and proportion the members of the structures, using the
engineer’s intuition and sound engineering principles, so that they can
be practically erected, have sufficient strength (safe), and are
economical, and sustainable.

◦ Practicality: Ensure structures can be fabricated and erected

without problems
◦ Safety Ensure structures can safely support the loads.
& serviceability: Ensure deflections and vibrations are controlled for
occupants’ comfort.
◦ Cost: Minimize costs without sacrificing strength/safety
(consider labor costs in fabrication and erection,
not just material costs)

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Roles and Responsibilities of the

Structural Steel Designer
The structural designer needs to consider the following factors.
◦ Material to be used
◦ Arrangement of structural system
◦ Type of jointing
◦ Method of fabrication and erection
◦ Installation of services
◦ Type of cladding, roofing, etc.
◦ Safety, economy, and aesthetics
◦ Required corrosion protection
◦ Required fire protection
◦ Operating/Maintenance and life-cycle costs

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 Basic Information for Structural Design
Design Variables
o Structural members/systems
o Materials
o Loads
o Design/analysis procedure

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Basic Structural Shapes

Truss Systems
◦ Truss members

Framed systems
◦ Beams
◦ Girders
◦ Columns

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 Steel Structures
Purlins

Column
Beams
Commercial Building Bracing

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Steel Structures

Industrial/Parking
structures “Framed”

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 Steel Structures

Trusses

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Steel Structures

High-rise buildings

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 Steel Structures

Girder bridges

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Steel Structures

Truss bridges

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 Steel Structures
Howrah Bridge

Golden Gate Bridge

(Suspension bridge)

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Structural Members
Structural members are categorized based upon
the internal forces in them. For example:
◦ Tension member – subjected to tensile (axial) force
only
◦ Column or compression member – subjected to
compressive axial force only
◦ Tension/Compression member – subjected to
tensile/compressive axial forces
◦ Beam member – subjected to flexural loads, i.e.,
shear force & bending moment only. The axial force
in a beam member is negligible.
◦ Beam-column member – member subjected to
combined axial force & flexural loads (shear force, &
bending moments)

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 Structural Members
In basic structural analysis students have come across
two types of structures, namely, trusses & frames.
◦ All the members of a truss are connected using
pin/hinge connections. All external forces are applied
at the pins/hinges. As a result, all truss members are
subjected to axial forces (tension or compression)
only.
◦ In braced & moment frames, the horizontal members
(beams) are subjected to flexural loads only.
◦ In braced frames, the vertical members (columns) are
subjected to compressive axial forces only (No
moment or shear).
◦ In braced frames, the diagonal members (braces) are
subjected to tension/compression axial forces only.
◦ In moment frames, the vertical members (beam-
columns) are subjected to combined axial & flexural
loads.

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Structural Members

Truss –
Columns –
Bracings –
Beams –

(braced frame)

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 Structural Members

Braces –
Beams –
Beam-Columns –
Columns –

(moment frame)

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Structural Connections
Members of a structural frame are connected
together using connections. Prominent connection
types include:
◦ Truss / bracing member connections are used to connect
two or more truss members together. Only the axial forces
in the members have to be transferred through the
connection for continuity.
◦ Simple shear connections are the pin connections. Only
shear forces are transferred through the connection for
continuity. The bending moments are not transferred
through the connection.
◦ Moment connections are rigid connections. Both shear
forces & bending moments are transferred through the
connections with very small deformations (full restraint).

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 Structural Connections
◦ Partially restrained connections are flexible connections. The shear
forces are transferred fully through the connection. However, the
bending moment is only transferred partially.
Connections are developed using bolts or welds.
◦ Bolts are used to connect two or more plate elements that are in
the same plane. Bolt holes are drilled in the plate elements. The
threaded bolt shank passes through the holes, & the connection is
secured using nuts.
◦ Welds can be used to connect plate elements that are in the same
or different planes. A high-voltage electric arc is developed
between the two plate elements. The electric arc causes localized
melting of the base metal (plate element) & the weld electrode.
After cooling, all the molten metal (base & weld) solidifies into one
continuum, thus developing a welded connection.

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Structural Connections
This figure shows an example truss
connection.
All the truss members are connected
together by welding to a common
gusset plate. The axial forces in the
members are transferred through the
gusset plates. This same connection
can also be developed using bolts.

Truss Connection
Only axial force is transferred through gusset plate

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 Structural Connections
This figure shows an example
bracing connection.
The bracing members are
connected to gusset plates, which
are also connected to the beam &
column. The bracing member can
be connected to the gusset plate
using bolts or welds. However, the
gusset plate is welded to the
beam/column.

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Structural Connections
This figure shows an example
shear connection.

Two angles are bolted to the

web of the beam. The
perpendicular legs of the
angles are bolted to the flange
of the column. Thus, an all-
bolted double-angle shear
connection is achieved. This
all-bolted connection will be
easier to assemble in the field
as compared to welding.
Shear force is transferred

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 Structural Connections
The figure shows an example
moment connection.
The beam flanges are beveled & welded
directly to the flange of column using full
penetration groove welds. This welding
will have to be done in the field during
erection & it will require the use of back-
up bars. Weld-access holes & skilled
welders are required to achieve a weld
of acceptable quality.
The beam web is bolted to a shear tab
(plate), which is fillet welded to the
column in the shop. This shear tab
connection transfers the shear from the
beam to the column.

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Background of Structural Steel

• Economical production in large volumes (of steel) was not available until
the mid-19th century. Steel became the principal metallic structural
material by 1890.

• Steels consist almost entirely of iron (over 98%) and small quantities of
carbon, silicon, manganese, sulfur, phosphorus, and other elements.

• The quantities of carbon affect the properties of steel the most.

◦ Increase of carbon content increases hardness and strength
◦ Increase in carbon content reduces the ductility of steel

• Carbon content in structural steel ranges from 0.1-0.85%

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 Processes for Steel Making
• Today’s steel is made in integrated
steel plants using the basic oxygen
steel-making (BOS) process.
• Raw materials: Iron ore, scrap steel
(up to 30%), pellets, coke (made from
cooking coal), limestone, and
dolomite.
• The main steps in the manufacturing
process involve:
• Melting – Raw materials are added to
the furnace. Hot air is pumped to melt
iron and fluxes at 1600oC. The molten
metal when cooled and solidified is
called pig iron. Impurities are floated
on the top – referred to as slag

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Processes for Steel Making

• Refining – Impurities are reduced in a
basic-oxygen furnace. Excess elements
in pig iron such as carbon, Mn, Si, S, P,
etc. are oxidized. Deoxidizers are used
to control the amount of dissolved
oxygen.
• Steel with highest degree of deoxidization is
called killed steel. Used in the production of
structural steel.
• Casting – The liquid steel is taken out
of the bottom of the furnace as a
continuous ribbon. In the continuous
casting method, the steel ribbon,
when sufficiently cooled, is cut into
desired products (billets, slabs, or
booms).
• Hot rolling – The semi-finished
products, such as billets, slabs, and
booms, are heated to 1200oC to make
the metal malleable and then rolled
into finished products.

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 Processes for Steel Making
Mini Steel Plants (Electric Arc Method)
• Specialized steel like stainless steel is manufactured using this method.
• The main steps in the manufacturing process involve:
• Melting – Scrap iron, fluxes, and ferroalloys are melted in an electric arc furnace
• Refining – The molten metal from the electric arc furnace is taken in a ladle for
refining. The metallurgy of steel is controlled at this stage.
• Casting – The liquid steel is cast into semi-finished products.
• Hot rolling – The semi-finished products are heated to 1200oC and then rolled into
finished products.

• Since only scrap iron is utilized, coke-making and iron-making processes are
eliminated.
• Economical and can serve local markets.

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Manufacturing of Steel Sections

• For the design of steel structures, engineers
use several long & flat products –
• Angles
• Channels
• Joists/beams
• Bars & rods
• Plates, hot rolled coils (HRC), or cold rolled
coils/sheets
• The starting materials for these finished
products are –
• Blooms
• Billets
• Slabs
• Hot rolled coils
• Hot/Cold rolled coils/sheets

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 Manufacturing of Steel Sections
Iron making & basic
oxygen steel process in
integrated steel plants

Steel ingots
Refining, casting &
primary/finish rolling

Final steel products

Primary rolls for structural
shapes

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Structure of Steel
Crystalline structure of metals:

• Ideal close-packed lattice arrangement –

• Face-centered cubic unit (fcc)
• Hexagonal close-packed structural cell

• Planes of slightly less packing have a body-centered cubic (bcc) structure.

Stable temp. Form of matter Phase Identification
range oC symbol
>2740 Gaseous Gas Gas
1539-2740 Liquid Liquid Liquid
1400-1539 Solid bcc δ-ferrite
910-1400 Solid fcc γ-austenite
<910 Solid bcc α-ferrite

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 Structure of Steel
• When carbon is added in small quantities to iron, steel
is obtained.
• Iron when combined with carbon to form a compound,
interstitial solid solutions are obtained.
• As carbon dissolves in the interstices, it distorts the original
crystal lattice – provides increased mechanical strength
• However, addition of more carbon reduced ductility.

• Ferrite dissolves carbon to a maximum of 0.025% - soft

and ductile

• γ-iron (Austenite) dissolves carbon to a maximum of

2%.

• Cementite is Fe3C containing 6.7% carbon – extremely

hard and brittle.

• Eutectoid mixture – fine laminated mixture of ferrite

and iron carbide called Pearlite – hard and low ductility

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Structure of Steel
• Structural engineers are interested in the
portion of the phase diagram up to 2.2%
carbon.
• Hypo-eutectoid steel – below 0.8% carbon
• Hyper-eutectoid steel – above 0.8% carbon

• When steel is cooled very slowly from high

temp., a ferrite pearlite mixture is formed.
• Pearlite provides the mechanical strength to
steel. However, higher quantities of pearlite
makes steel less ductile.
• Steel with carbon content above 0.85% is
not of much use to civil engineering. They
are used in making cutting tools.

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 Heat Treatment of Steel
• Heat treatment involves the heating and cooling of steel under controlled
conditions to change the structural and physical properties.

• Annealing and normalizing are processes to refine the structure of steel.

• Annealing – steel is heated to 900oC and then held at that temp. prior to
slow cooling in the furnace

• Normalizing – similar to annealing – except cooling happens in still air

outside the furnace – slightly finer grain structure & improved properties

• Refined steel has higher strength and ductility.

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Heat Treatment of Steel

Quenching & Tempering:
• Small sections of steel are water-quenched or oil-quenched.
• Results in a brittle material.
• Not suitable for structural steel construction.
• Used in making high-strength bolts.
• Tempering involves reheating the quenched steel to 600oC.
• Results in superior strength and ductility.
• Quenching & tempering – applied to high-carbon steels & alloy steels to
achieve properties such as high hardness, high strength and high
toughness.

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 Alloying Elements in Steel
• Steel contains impurities such as phosphorous and Sulphur – harmful to
the toughness of steel – desirable to keep these elements less than 0.05%

• Manganese, silicon, copper, vanadium, nickel, chromium, molybdenum,

and aluminum are other alloying elements.

• Some increase in Mn improves the strength of steel but cannot be

increased unduly – restricted to 1.5% by weight.

• Based on the Mn content, steel is classified as carbon-manganese steel

(Mn > 1%) and carbon steel (Mn < 1%).

• In recent years, micro-alloyed steels or high strength low alloy (HSLA)

steels have been developed – controlled grain size
• Basically carbon-manganese steels in which small amounts of aluminum,
vanadium, molybdenum or other elements are used.

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BIS Classifications of Structural Steels

Classified based on the ultimate (or yield) strength of steel.

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 Types of Structural Steel
• Carbon Steel (IS 2062) – C and Mn are the main strengthening elements.
Min. UTS varies from 410 – 440 MPa and min. YS from 230 to 300 Mpa.
• High-strength carbon steel – Steel having a high carbon content, and
hence lower ductility, toughness, and weldability. Used in transmission
towers where relatively light members are joined by bolting. Have UTS
ranging from 480 – 550 MPa and YS of 350 – 400 MPa.
• Medium- and high-strength microalloyed steel (IS 2062) – Steel has low
carbon content but high strength due to the addition of alloys such as
niobium, vanadium, etc.
• High-strength quenched and tempered steel – Steel are heat treated to
achieve high strength. They are tough and weldable but require special
welding techniques. UTS varies from 700 – 950 MPa and YS is about 550 –
700 MPa.

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Types of Structural Steel

• Weathering steels – Low alloy atmospheric corrosion-resistant steels.
Usually left unpainted. UTS is about 480 MPa and YS is about 350 MPa.

• Stainless steels – Low carbon steels to which 10.5% chromium and 0.5%
nickel is added. This is a rust-resistant alloy steel primarily developed for
use in coastal regions. Also possess other superior qualities such as higher
elongation and better fire resistance.

• Fire resistant steels – Thermomechanically treated steels to achieve

higher fire resistance than ordinary steels

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 Mechanical Properties of Steel
Stress-strain behavior: tensile test – IS 1608 (2022):

• The stress-strain curve is obtained from a tensile test on a standard steel

specimen.

• The initial gauge length is taken as 5.65 (So)1/2 for a rectangular specimen
& 5 times the diameter for a circular specimen.

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Mechanical Properties of Steel

Stress-strain behavior of mild steel: tensile test – IS 1608 (2022):
• 𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ =
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐/𝑠

• This is the engineering

ultimate tensile stress.
• 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐/𝑠

• True stress is difficult to

calculate.
• In design applications, the
original area of c/s is used.

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 Mechanical Properties of Steel
Stress-strain behavior of mild steel: tensile test – IS 1608 (2022):
• 𝝐𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟓 for mild steel
• 𝝐𝒔𝒉 varies between 5 to 15 𝝐𝒚
• 𝝐𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝐𝒚
• E=f/ε (below the
proportionality limit)
• E varies from 200,000 –
210,000 MPa.
• Strain-hardening modulus
(Est) – less steep than E.
• Est/E varies between 1/30
& 1/100.

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Mechanical Properties of Steel

Stress-strain behavior of high-strength steel: tensile test – IS 1608 (2022):

• Due to their specific

microstructure – do not show a
sharp yield point.
• Yield stress is always taken at
which a line at 0.2% strain,
parallel to the elastic portion,
intercepts the stress-strain
curve.
• Sometimes referred to as the
proof stress.

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 Mechanical Properties of Steel
Ductility of steel:

• Ductility is the ability of the material to change its shape without fracture.
• Ability to undergo large inelastic deformations without significant loss of
strength or stiffness.
• Can be measured from the stress-strain response of steel.
• It is the amount of permanent strain
• From the tension test, ductility is measured by determining the
percentage elongation.
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 −𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ ×100
• % 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
gauge length

• Mild steel exhibits about 20% elongation before fracture.

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Mechanical Properties of Steel

Toughness:
• Capacity of steel to absorb large amounts of energy before fracture –
measured as the area under the stress-strain curve.
• Measure of ability to resist fracture under impact loading.
• At room temp. common structural steel is very tough and fails in a
ductile manner.
• At temp. below 0oC, there is significant reduction in ductility and
toughness – can lead to brittle fracture.
• Combination of low temp., abrupt change in section size (notch
effect/imperfection), and presence of tensile stress results in brittle
fracture.

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 Mechanical Properties of Steel
Charpy V-notch (CVN) test:
• The amount of energy absorbed by steel is
measured by impacting a notched specimen
with a heavy swinging pendulum in Izod or
Charpy V-notch (CVN) tests (IS 1757).

• The larger the impact value the tougher the

material.

• The temp. of the specimen is varied and the

energy absorbed by the specimen at
different temp. is noted.

• Typically, a value of 20J indicates lower

transition temp. (brittle fracture) and 60J is
specified for the higher transition (ductile
fracture).

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Mechanical Properties of Steel

Hardness: resistance of a material to indentations and scratching

Hardness Testing Indenter • Hardness number is related

Method to the ratio of the applied
load to the surface area of
(a) Brinell Steel ball the indentation formed.
hardness
• The testing procedure
(b) Vickers Square based diamond involves forcing the indenter
hardness pyramids of 135o onto the surface of a
included angle particular rod.
(c) Rockwell Diamond core with 120o • On removal, the size of the
hardness included angle indentation is measured
Rockwell hardness testing is not used for using a microscope.
structural steels

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 Mechanical Properties of Steel
Brinell hardness (BHN) is given by the ratio of the applied load and spherical area
of the indentation.

Where P is the load, D is the ball diameter, d is the indent diameter.

The Vickers test gives a similar hardness value (VHN) as given by

Where L is the diagonal length of the indent.

Both the BHN and VHN for steel range from 150 to 190.

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Residual Stresses
• Occurs in steel structural shapes
• Uneven cooling of hot-rolled shape after rolling
• Welding of plates for fabricated or built-up shapes
• Cold bending during fabrication
• Magnitude and distribution of residual stresses depend on the c/s
shape and dimensions
• Residual stresses are usually independent of the steel yield strength
• Thermal residual stresses occur in rolled wide flange shapes because
locations with high surface area (e.g., flange tips) cool well before
locations with smaller surface area (flange-to-web intersections)

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 Residual Stresses
Locations with a high surface area cool first

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Residual Stresses
• Entire section is hot and it starts to
cool…lengthwise contraction with E0
<< E
• Flange tips (surface area!) cool
relatively faster than the flange-web
intersection (smaller surface) area,
Efl ≈ E

• Flange-web intersection (smaller surface area) now cools and wants

to contract, but flange tips are already set and do not want to
contract.
• Result – locations to cool the last end up in tension and equilibrium
requires locations that cooled first to end up in compression.

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 Residual Stresses

Residual stresses in steel shapes

Idealized residual stress distribution as per Eurocode 3

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Advantages & Disadvantages of Steel as a

Structural Material
Advantages
◦ Strong in comparison & tension.
◦ High strength per unit of weight → smaller weight of structures.
◦ Ductility.
◦ Toughness - both strong and ductile.
◦ Uniformity.
◦ Long lasting.
◦ Easy connection.
◦ Speed of erection.
◦ Ability to be rolled into various sizes and shapes.
◦ Possible reuse and recyclability.
◦ Less variability, less wastage – sustainability.

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 Advantages & Disadvantages of Steel as a
Structural Material
Disadvantages
◦ Maintenance costs
◦ Corrosion
◦ Fire protection/Fireproofing costs
◦ Susceptibility to buckling failure
◦ Fatigue – (cyclic loading)
◦ Brittle fracture

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Corrosion Resistance
• Steel easily corrodes in moist air. The process is hastened in the
presence of seawater or acidic environment.
• Protection methods:
• Paint – Zinc- or aluminum-based primary coating with two to three layers of
finishing coat.
• Metallic coating – Galvanizing, electroplating, or metal spraying using Zinc
or Aluminum.
• Use of weathering steel – contains more phosphorous, copper, and some
chromium than ordinary steels
• Costs 20% more than ordinary steel
• Suitable for structures in corrosive environments

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 Fire Resistance
• Steel is not flammable.
• The strength and stiffness of steel reduce with a rise in temp.
• The yield (and tensile) strength of steel at 500oC is about 60-70% of its room temp.
strength.
• Steel-framed structures require fire protection to control the temp. rise in the
member.
• Provide sufficient time for occupants to evacuate a building
• Carry out firefighting operations
• Structural stability (prevention of collapse)

• Protection methods:
• Fire insulation (gypsum boards, spray-applied fire resistive material, intumescent paints,
etc.)
• Capacitive protection (concrete or masonry)

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Structural Steel Sections used in India

• Specifications for the structural steel sections are
specified in SP 6(1) and IS 808.
• Sections are denoted by letters (indicates
classification & type) and a number (indicates
size).
• Beam sections – ISLB (light), ISJB (junior), ISMB
(medium), ISHB (heavy), & ISWB (wide-flanged).
• Channel sections – ISLC, ISMC, ISJC
• Angles – ISA – equal and unequal angles
• Tees – ISJT, ISLT, ISST
• Plates, flats, and strips
• Some sections have the same designation –
differentiated by their unit wt. E.g., ISMB 400 @
0.616 kN/m Hollow sections

• Hollow sections

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 Design Philosophies
Working Stress Method of design (WSM) – based
on linear elastic theory
Ultimate Strength Design (USD) – plastic design –
based on the ultimate strength of steel at ultimate
loads
Limit States Method of design (LSM) – considers
safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at
working loads

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Working Stress Method

Service (working) loads are calculated as expected during service life.
Linear elastic analysis is performed to obtain the stresses.
The first attainment of yield stress is taken as the onset of failure.
A factor of safety (FOS) of the material strength is assumed.
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦

Design is satisfactory if working stress < permissible stress

FOS = 1.67 (tension members & beams), 1.92 (long columns), 1.67 (short
columns), 2.5 – 3 (connections)
Limitations
◦ Nonlinearity (geometric & material) & buckling – ignored

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 Working Stress Method
Load combinations used in WSM:
1. Stress due to dead load + live load < permissible stress
2. Stress due to dead load + wind load < permissible stress
3. Stress due to dead load + live load + wind load < 1.33 (permissible
stress)
Steel sections have the ability to tolerate high stresses by yielding
locally and redistributing the loads.
WSM does not provide a realistic measure of the actual factor of safety
underlying a design.

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Ultimate Load Design

Service loads are factored by a “load factor”.
The structure is assumed to fail under these loads, thus, plastic hinges
will form under these loads “Plastic Analysis”.
Plastic moment strength is the moment strength when all the fibers in
the c/s are at yield stress.
Members are safe as they are designed to fail under these factored
loads while they will only experience service loads.
Load factor – the ratio of ultimate load (design load) to working load
Working loads Load factor (as per IS
800 (1984))
All loads & combinations 1.7
except DL + IL + WL or EL
DL + IL + WL or EL 1.3

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 What is a Limit State?
When a structure or structural element becomes
unfit for its intended purpose it has reached or
exceeded a limit state.

Two categories of limit state are used to define

failure:
◦ Ultimate (safety) limit state
◦ Serviceability limit state

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Limit States
Ultimate (or strength or safety)
1. Strength (yielding, buckling, etc.)
2. Stability against overturning & sway
3. Rupture – failure due to excessive deformation
4. Fatigue fracture
5. Brittle fracture
Serviceability – discomfort for occupants
1. Excessive deflection & deformation
2. Excessive corrosion and loss of durability
3. Unwanted/excessive vibration (wind-induced oscillations, floor
vibrations, etc.)

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 Limit States Method
LSM is a reliability-based design approach that provides a
probability-based assessment of structural safety.
Loads, member strength, & member dimensions – varying
degrees of uncertainty.
Possibility of overload & understrength
Frequency of distribution curves
Ultimate limit state:
When the two curves overlap,
Frequency

the probability of failure can

be defined as the probability
Probability
of failure
of Q > R
Load effect (Q) or resistance of the element (R)

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Characteristic Load & Characteristic

Strength
Characteristic strength – the value of strength below which not
more than 5% of the test results will fall.
Characteristic load – load which is not expected to be exceeded
with more than 5% probability.
The design values of strength & loads are derived using partial
safety factors.

σ 𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 −𝑓 2
𝜎=
𝑛−1

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 Partial Safety Factor Format
𝑅𝑑 ≥ σ 𝛾𝑖𝑓 𝑄𝑖𝑑

𝑅𝑑 = design strength (or resistance) = 𝑅𝑢 /𝛾𝑚

𝑅𝑢 = characteristic material strength
𝛾𝑚 = partial safety factor for the material
𝑄𝑖𝑑 = design action (load effect)
𝛾𝑖𝑓 = partial safety factors for loads

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Partial Safety Factor Format

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 Partial Safety Factor Format

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Serviceability Limit State

Serviceability parameter Δ (deflection, vibration, etc.) is
considered.
Failure is said to occur when Δ exceeds the maximum limit
of serviceability, Δall.
The limit defining failure is deterministic (unlike strength
limit state).
Serviceability limit states – satisfactory performance
Load factor, 𝜸𝒇 is taken as unity for all serviceability limit
state considerations.

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 Deflection limits

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Loads
1. Dead load (IS 875 Part 1) – Weight of the structure & associated non-structural
components.

2. Imposed load (IS 875 Part 2) – Also called live loads. Gravity loads other than the
dead loads. Includes occupancy by people, stored materials (books), machinery,
etc.
➢ Loads that are gradually applied (vary slowly over time)
➢ Dynamically applied loads (repeated loads & impact loads) – design of overhead
cranes, lifts, etc. found in industrial and tall buildings. The live load is multiplied by an
impact factor to obtain equivalent static loads.

3. Snow loads (IS 875 Part 4) – Computed by multiplying the ground snow by a
coefficient to account for roof slope, wind exposure, non-uniform accumulation,
multi-level roofs, etc.
➢ 𝒔 = 𝝁𝒔𝟎 (s = design snow load (kN/m2), μ = shape factor, and s0 = ground snow load
(kN/m2))

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 Loads
3. Erection loads – Not directly specified in building codes. To be determined by
the engineer. Vary from project to project.

4. Wind load (IS 875 Part 3) – The design wind speed is calculated by multiplying
the basic wind speed with factors to account for risk level, terrain roughness,
height & size of the structure, & local topography.
➢ 𝑽𝒛 = 𝑽𝒃 𝒌𝟏𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟑 𝒌𝟒
➢ 𝑉𝑧 = design wid speed at any height z in m/s, 𝑉𝑏 = basic wind speed (m/s), 𝑘1 = risk
coefficient, 𝑘2 = terrain height & structure size factor, 𝑘3 = topography factor, and 𝑘4
= importance factor for the cyclonic region.
➢ The design wind pressure, 𝒑𝒅 = 𝑲𝒅 𝑲𝒂 𝑲𝒄 𝒑𝒛 (where wind pressure at height z, 𝒑𝒛 =
𝟎. 𝟔𝑽𝒛 𝟐 , 𝐾𝑑 = wind directionality factor, 𝐾𝑎 = area averaging factor, & 𝐾𝑐 =
combination factor.

5. Accidental loads (IS 875 Part 5) – Sudden impacts/collisions, explosions, fire, etc.

6. Earthquake load – IS 1893

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Load Combinations
The IS code specifies the following load combinations (Table 2.7):
1. 1.5 (𝐷𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿) + 1.05 (𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐿)
2. 1.2 𝐷𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 + 1.05 𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐿 ± 0.6 𝑊𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐿
3. 1.2 𝐷𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 ± 𝑊𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐿 + 0.53 𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐿
4. 1.5 𝐷𝐿 ± 𝑊𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐿
5. 0.9𝐷𝐿 ± 1.5(𝑊𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐿)
6. 1.2 𝐷𝐿 + 𝐸𝑅
7. 0.9𝐷𝐿 + 1.2𝐸𝑅
8. 𝐷𝐿 + 0.35 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐶𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝐿 + 𝐴𝐿
DL = dead load, IL = imposed load (live load), WL = wind load, SL = snow load, CL
= crane load (vertical/horizontal), AL = accidental load, ER = erection load, and
EL = earthquake load.

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 Tributary Area Calculations
A steel framed building has six stories. The floor layout is shown below.
Determine the magnitude and distribution of live load on the interior frame bi –
ei – hi. LL of each floor = 2.5kN/m2 Beam Tributary area
member

bi – ei 1 7.5
𝐴𝑇 = × 7.5 × ×2
ei - hi 2 2
= 28.125 𝑚2
7.5 m
di – ei 𝐴𝑇
ei – fi 1 7.5
= × × (15 + 7.5)
2 2
× 2 = 84.375 𝑚2
7.5 m gi – hi 1 7.5
𝐴𝑇 = × × (15 + 7.5)
hi - ii 2 2
ai – bi = 42.19 𝑚2
bi – ci
15 m 15 m 1 7.5
ai – di
𝐴𝑇 = × 7.5 ×
di - gi 2 2
ci – fi = 14.06 𝑚2
fi – ii

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Tributary Area Calculations

2.5 x (7.5/2) = 9.375 kN/m

7.5 m 7.5 m
35.16 kN 70.32 kN 35.16 kN

3.75 m

7.5 m 7.5 m

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 Tributary Area Calculations
2.5 x (7.5/2) = 9.375 kN/m

3.75 m 7.5 m 3.75 m

105.46 kN 3.75kN
105.46 m

𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅𝑐 = 105.46 𝑘𝑁 The concentrated LL acting on columns b and h

are (210.94 + 35.16) = 245.5 kN at the top story
𝑅𝑏 = 210.94 𝑘𝑁
𝑅𝑑 = 𝑅𝑓 = 210.94 𝑘𝑁 The concentrated LL acting on column ei is
(421.88 + 70.32) = 492.2 kN at the top story
𝑅𝑒 = 421.88 𝑘𝑁

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Tributary Area Calculations

The concentrated LL on columns can be directly estimated from the
tributary area of the columns.

The concentrated LL acting

𝐴 𝑇 = 7.5Τ2 × 15 = 56.25𝑚2 on columns bi and hi are
7.5 m 56.25 x 2.5 = 140.625 kN
𝐴 𝑇 = 7.5 × 15 = 112.5𝑚 2 at the top story
The concentrated LL acting
7.5 m on column ei is 112.5 x 2.5
𝐴 𝑇 = 7.5Τ2 × 15 = 56.25𝑚2
= 281.25 kN at the top
story

15 m 15 m

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