MICRO PROCESSORS

MBUYA
WHAT IS A PROCESSOR?
A microprocessor is the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer, responsible for
executing instructions and performing arithmetic/logic operations. A microprocessor it is
known as the brain of a computer, responsible for executing instructions and performing
arithmetic and logic operations.
A microprocessor may also be called a processor or central processing unit, but it is
actually more advanced in terms of architectural design and is built over a silicon
microchip. It is the most important unit within a computer system and is responsible for
processing the unique set of instructions and processes.
A microprocessor is designed to execute logical and computational tasks with typical
operations such as addition/subtraction, interprocess and device communication,
input/output management, etc. Also, it’s composed of integrated circuits that hold
thousands of transistors.
Microprocessors are generally classified according to the number of instructions they
can process within a given time, their clock speed measured in megahertz and the
number of bits used per instruction.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR
I. First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)
The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by
Intel Corporation. It was named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.
It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and logical
operations such as addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and Boolean AND.
A 4-bit processor refers to a type of microprocessor architecture where the width
of the data bus and the size of the registers are designed to handle 4 bits of
binary information at a time. The "bit" is the smallest unit of data in computing
and can have a value of 0 or 1. Here's what this means;
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Data Width: The term "4-bit" indicates that the processor can process and handle
data in chunks of 4 bits at a time. This includes operations like arithmetic, logic, and
data movement.
Register Size: The registers in the processor, which are small, fast storage locations
for holding data temporarily during processing, typically have a size of 4 bits.
Address Bus: In addition to the data bus, processors have an address bus that
determines the range of memory addresses the processor can access. The size of the
address bus is also relevant to the total amount of memory the processor can
address. However, the term "4-bit processor" usually refers more to the data bus
size.
Data Bus: refers to a subsystem within a computer or electronic system that is
responsible for transferring data between various components. It is a communication
pathway used to transmit binary-coded information (0s and 1s) between different
parts of a computer, such as the central processing unit (CPU), memory, and
input/output devices.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Address Bus: refers to a subsystem within a computer or electronic system that is
responsible for carrying memory addresses. In a computer architecture, the address bus is
used by the central processing unit (CPU) to specify the memory location it wants to read
from or write to. It's one of the three main buses in a computer system, alongside the data
bus and control bus.
Control Bus: refers to a subsystem within a computer or electronic system that is
responsible for transmitting control signals between different components. In a computer
architecture, the control bus is one of the three primary buses, alongside the data bus and
address bus. It facilitates communication and coordination between the central processing
unit (CPU), memory, and other peripherals.
Historical Significance: While 4-bit processors were used in early computing devices,
they are quite limited compared to modern processors. Most contemporary processors
have larger data bus sizes, such as 64-bit or 32-bit, allowing them to handle much larger
chunks of data and address more memory.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..

II. Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)

The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It
was a first 8 - bit microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations
on 8-bit words. It was Intel 8008, and another improved version was Intel 8088.
An 8-bit processor is a type of microprocessor architecture where the width of the
data bus, the size of the registers, and the processing capabilities are designed to
handle 8 bits of binary information at a time. Each "bit" represents a binary digit,
which can have a value of 0 or 1. Here's what this means;
EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Data Width: The term "8-bit" indicates that the processor can process and
handle data in chunks of 8 bits at a time. This includes operations like
arithmetic, logic, and data movement.
Register Size: The registers in the processor, which are small, fast storage
locations for holding data temporarily during processing, typically have a
size of 8 bits.
Address Bus: While the term "8-bit processor" specifically refers to the
data bus size, processors also have an address bus that determines the
range of memory addresses the processor can access.
Data Size: The width of the data bus determines the maximum amount of
data that can be transferred in a single operation. An 8-bit data bus can
transfer 8 bits of data at once.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Memory Addressing: The processor's architecture allows it to address
memory locations up to 2^8 (256) different addresses. This means it can
directly access or manipulate data stored in up to 256 memory locations.
Historical Significance: 8-bit processors were prevalent in the early days
of computing and were used in various home computers and early
personal computers. Examples include processors like the Intel 8080, Zilog
Z80, and MOS Technology 6502.
Limited Range: The limited width of the data bus and address bus in an 8-
bit processor imposes limitations on the amount of data that can be
processed and the memory that can be addressed compared to more
modern architectures with wider buses.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
III. Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)
The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's
8086, Zilog Z800 and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance
like minicomputers.
A 16-bit processor is a type of microprocessor architecture in which the data bus,
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), and registers are designed to handle 16 bits of data at a
time. Here's what this means;
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Data Width: The term "16-bit" specifically refers to the size of the data bus. The data bus is
a communication pathway that allows data to be transferred between different components
of the processor and the computer system. A 16-bit processor can process data in 16-bit
chunks.
Registers: The registers in a 16-bit processor typically have a width of 16 bits. Registers are
small, fast storage locations within the CPU that are used for temporary storage and
manipulation of data during processing.
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is the part of the processor responsible for
performing arithmetic and logical operations. In a 16-bit processor, the ALU is designed to
operate on 16-bit binary data.
Address Bus: While the term "16-bit processor" primarily refers to the data bus, processors
also have an address bus that determines the range of memory addresses the processor can
access. The address bus width influences the maximum amount of memory the processor can
address.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Memory Addressing: A 16-bit processor can directly address 2^16 (65,536)
different memory locations. This means it can access or manipulate data stored in
up to 65,536 memory locations.
Historical Significance: 16-bit processors were widely used in the late 1970s
and 1980s in personal computers and gaming consoles. Examples include the Intel
8086 and Motorola 68000 processors.
Performance: 16-bit processors offered improved performance and capabilities
compared to earlier 8-bit processors. They were able to handle more extensive
data sets and perform more complex computations.
Transition to 32-bit: Over time, as computing demands increased, processors with
wider data buses, such as 32-bit and 64-bit, became more prevalent for
enhanced performance and memory addressing capabilities.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
IV. Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)
Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is
the Intel 80386.
A 32-bit processor is a type of microprocessor architecture in which the data bus, arithmetic/logic
unit (ALU), and registers are designed to handle 32 bits of data at a time. Here's what this
means;
Data Width: The term "32-bit" specifically refers to the size of the data bus. The data bus is a
communication pathway that allows data to be transferred between different components of the
processor and the computer system. A 32-bit processor can process data in 32-bit chunks.
Registers: The registers in a 32-bit processor typically have a width of 32 bits. Registers are
small, fast storage locations within the CPU that are used for temporary storage and
manipulation of data during processing.
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is the part of the processor responsible for performing
arithmetic and logical operations. In a 32-bit processor, the ALU is designed to operate on 32-bit
binary data.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Address Bus: While the term "32-bit processor" primarily refers to the data bus, processors also have
an address bus that determines the range of memory addresses the processor can access. The address
bus width influences the maximum amount of memory the processor can address.
Memory Addressing: A 32-bit processor can directly address 2^32 (4 gigabytes) of different
memory locations. This means it can access or manipulate data stored in up to 4 gigabytes of memory.
Performance: 32-bit processors offer increased performance and capabilities compared to earlier
16-bit processors. They can handle larger data sets and perform more complex computations, which is
crucial for modern applications and operating systems.
Transition to 64-bit: As computing demands continued to increase, processors with wider data buses,
such as 64-bit processors, became more common. The transition to 64-bit architectures allowed for
even larger memory addressing and further increased processing capabilities.
Common in Modern Systems: While 64-bit processors are prevalent in contemporary computing, 32-
bit processors are still encountered in some older systems, embedded applications, and lightweight
devices where the demand for processing power and memory addressing is not as high.
 EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
V. Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)
From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor
namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single system
to achieve multiprocessing. Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core
processors. A 64-bit processor is a type of microprocessor architecture in which the data bus,
arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), and registers are designed to handle 64 bits of data at a time. Here's
what this means;
Data Width: The term "64-bit" specifically refers to the size of the data bus. The data bus is a
communication pathway that allows data to be transferred between different components of the
processor and the computer system. A 64-bit processor can process data in 64-bit chunks.
Registers: The registers in a 64-bit processor typically have a width of 64 bits. Registers are small,
fast storage locations within the CPU that are used for temporary storage and manipulation of data
during processing.
Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU is the part of the processor responsible for performing
arithmetic and logical operations. In a 64-bit processor, the ALU is designed to operate on 64-bit
binary data.
EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR CONT..
Address Bus: While the term "64-bit processor" primarily refers to the data bus,
processors also have an address bus that determines the range of memory
addresses the processor can access. The address bus width influences the
maximum amount of memory the processor can address.
Memory Addressing: A 64-bit processor can directly address 2^64
(approximately 18.4 exabytes) of different memory locations. This vast
addressing range allows for the handling of very large amounts of system
memory.
Performance: 64-bit processors offer increased performance and capabilities
compared to earlier 32-bit processors. They can handle larger data sets, perform
more complex computations, and support more extensive memory addressing,
which is crucial for modern applications and operating systems.
Transition from 32-bit: As computing demands increased, the industry
transitioned from 32-bit to 64-bit architectures to address the need for larger
memory capacities and improved processing power.
Common in Modern Systems: Most modern computers, servers, and operating
systems use 64-bit processors due to their ability to handle more significant
amounts of memory and provide improved performance for resource-intensive
tasks.
 BASIC TERMS USED IN MICROPROCESSOR
Instruction Set - The group of commands that the microprocessor can understand is called
Instruction set. It is an interface between hardware and software.
Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to different
elements in a microprocessor. A microprocessor will have three types of buses, i.e., data bus,
address bus, and control bus.
IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many instructions a CPU is capable of
executing in a single clock.
Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It can be
expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.
Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at a time is called the word length of
the processor. 8-bit Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range of word length is
from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS

A microprocessor is built using three basic circuit blocks:

I. Main memory
II. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
III. Control unit (CU)
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS CONT.…
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS CONT.…
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS CONT.…
I. Components of Microprocessors
• Control Unit (CU):
• Oversees the execution of instructions, coordinating the flow of data within the processor and between
other system components.
• Responsible for fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, and controlling the execution of
operations.
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
• Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical (AND, OR, NOT) operations
on data.
• Executes the actual computations based on the instructions provided.

• Registers:
• Small, high-speed storage units located within the processor.
• Temporarily holds data, instructions, and addresses during processing.
• Memory Unit:
• Stores data and instructions that the processor accesses during operation.
• Consists of various types of memory, including cache, RAM, and ROM.
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS CONT.…
II. Bus System
• Data Bus:
• Transfers data between the processor, memory, and other peripheral devices.

• Address Bus:
• Carries the address of the memory location or peripheral device being accessed.
• Determines the source or destination of data on the data bus.

• Control Bus:
• Controls the operation of various components within the processor, including data transfer,
interrupts, and clock signals.
• Coordinates communication between different parts of the processor and external
devices.
ARCHITECTURE OF MICROPROCESSORS CONT.…
III. Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle:
• Fetch:
• The control unit fetches the next instruction from memory, transferring it to the instruction
register.

• Decode:
• The control unit interprets the instruction, determining the operation to be performed and
the data involved.

• Execute:
• The ALU executes the instruction, performing the specified operation on the data.
• Results may be stored in registers, memory, or transferred to output devices.
KEY COMPONENTS
Control Unit (CU):
• Function:
• Manages the operation of the microprocessor by fetching instructions, decoding them, and
controlling the execution of operations.
• Coordinates the flow of data within the processor and between other system components.
• Importance:
• Acts as the "brain" of the microprocessor, orchestrating the execution of instructions and
ensuring proper operation.
• Determines the sequence of operations and controls the timing of each step in the instruction
execution process.
KEY COMPONENTS CONT.…

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

• Function:
• Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical (AND, OR, NOT)
operations on data.
• Executes the actual computations specified by the instructions fetched from memory.
• Importance:
• Handles mathematical and logical operations required for data processing and manipulation.
• Forms the core computational engine of the microprocessor, driving its ability to perform
various tasks.
KEY COMPONENTS CONT.…

Registers:
• Function:
• Small, high-speed storage units within the processor used to store temporary data, instructions, and
addresses during processing.
• Includes various types such as the instruction register (IR), program counter (PC), and general-purpose
registers.
• Importance:
• Facilitates efficient data access and manipulation, enabling quick retrieval and storage of information.
• Stores intermediate results and memory addresses required for executing instructions and accessing
data.
Understanding Key Concepts in Modern Computing..
1. Throughput
Throughput refers to the amount of work or data processed by a system within
a specific time frame. It is a key metric for evaluating performance.
• Significance:
In computing, higher throughput implies that a system can handle more tasks or
data simultaneously, increasing overall efficiency.
• Examples:
• Disk throughput measures how much data a storage device can read/write per second
(e.g., MB/s).
• Network throughput refers to the rate at which data is transferred (e.g., Mbps).
2. Hyper-Threading
Hyper-Threading Technology (HT) is Intel's proprietary technology that enables
a single physical CPU core to function as two logical cores, allowing it to
execute multiple threads concurrently.
• How It Works:
Hyper-Threading leverages idle resources in a CPU core by running two
threads in parallel, improving task scheduling and utilization.
• Advantages:
• Increased parallelism and system responsiveness.
• Improved performance in multi-threaded applications like video rendering or
virtualization.
• Limitations:
• Actual performance gains depend on software optimization for multi-threading.
3. Multithreading
Multithreading refers to a programming and CPU capability where multiple
threads (smaller, independent sequences of execution within a process) run
concurrently.
Types of Multithreading:
• Preemptive Multithreading: The operating system determines when threads execute.
• Cooperative Multithreading: Threads voluntarily yield control to ensure others run.
• Use Cases:
• Servers handling multiple client requests.
• Concurrent animations in user interfaces.

• Challenges:
• Managing thread synchronization to avoid conflicts.
• Debugging issues like race conditions and deadlocks.
4. Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing involves the use of multiple CPUs (or cores) to execute processes
simultaneously, enhancing parallel processing capabilities.
• Difference from Multithreading:
• Multithreading: Uses multiple threads within the same process.
• Multiprocessing: Involves multiple independent processes running on separate CPUs or
cores.

• Types:
• Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): All processors share the same memory and are
treated equally.
• Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP): Processors have specialized roles, often seen in
embedded systems.
5. Parallel Computing
A computing paradigm where multiple computations are carried out
simultaneously to solve problems faster.
Levels of Parallelism:
• Bit-level: Operations on multiple bits simultaneously.
• Instruction-level: Executing multiple instructions in parallel within a CPU.
• Task-level: Independent tasks executed concurrently.
Applications:
• Supercomputing for scientific simulations.
• Graphics rendering in GPUs.
6. Pipelining
Pipelining is a technique where multiple instruction stages are overlapped
during execution, similar to an assembly line.
Stages:
Common stages include Fetch, Decode, Execute, Memory Access, and Write
Back.
Advantages:
• Increases CPU throughput.
• Reduces the instruction execution cycle.
Challenges:
• Pipeline Stalls: Occur when an instruction depends on the result of a previous one.
• Hazards: Data, structural, and control hazards may reduce efficiency.
7. Cache and Cache Coherency
• Cache:
• A small, high-speed storage layer that stores frequently accessed data for faster
retrieval.
• Levels include L1 (fastest, smallest), L2, and L3.

• Cache Coherency:
• Ensures consistency of data stored in multiple caches in multi-core processors.
• Protocols like MESI (Modified, Exclusive, Shared, Invalid) manage this.

8. Clock Speed and Performance

• Clock Speed:
• Measured in GHz, it represents the number of cycles a CPU can execute per second.
• Higher clock speeds generally indicate faster performance, but efficiency depends on
architecture and workload.

• Performance Considerations:
• Modern CPUs balance clock speed with power consumption and thermal limits.
9. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
The set of instructions that a CPU can execute, serving as an
interface between software and hardware.
Types of ISAs:
• CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing): Fewer instructions per
program but complex instructions. Example: x86.
• RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing): Simpler instructions executed
faster. Example: ARM.
10. Bottlenecks in Computing
A bottleneck is a limiting factor that slows down overall system
performance.
• Common Bottlenecks:
• CPU-bound: Insufficient processing power.
• Memory-bound: Slow RAM access.
• I/O-bound: Slow input/output operations (e.g., disk or network).
• Mitigation Strategies:
• Use multi-threading or parallel computing.
• Upgrade components like SSDs, GPUs, or CPUs.